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A 


PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


OS  THE 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER 


IN  ALL  ITS  BRANCHES. 


BY 

CARL  HOFMANN, 

LATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PAPER-MILLS  IN  GERMANY  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES;  RECENTLY  MANAGER  OP  THE 
PUBLIC  LEDCiER  PAPER-MILLS,  NEAR  ELKTON,  MD. 


Illustrated  by  One  Hundred  and  Twenty-jSTine  Wood  Engravings, 
AND  Five  Large  Folding  Plates. 


ALL  EIGHTS  OF  TRANSLATION  AND  EEPEODLCTION  EESEEVED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY    CAREY  BAIRD, 

indisteial  plblishee, 
406    Walnut  Street. 


LONDON:  SAMPSON  LOW,  MARSTON,  LOW,  &  SEARLE,  CROWN  BUILDINGS,  188  FLEET  STREET, 

1  8  7  3. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  llie  year  1873, 
By  carl  hop  MANN, 
In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


SHERMAN  &  CO.,  PRINTERS,  SEVENTH  AND   CHERRY  STS., 
PnrLADELPHIA. 


Preface. 


The  object  of  this  book  is  to  give  a  scientitic  and  practical  explanation  of  the  different 
processes  by  wliich  paper  is  made,  to  serve  as  a  guide  for  those  who  desire  to  build  mills, 
and  to  be  a  helpmate  for  paper-makers  generally. 

The  facts  and  rules  given  therein  are  derived  from  experience,  and  ^special  care  has 
been  taken  that  the  working-man  may  not  look  in  vain  for  those  practical  details,  which 
are  often  of  more  value  to  him  than  the  most  brilliant  scientific  explanations.  The  prepa- 
ration of  pulp  from  waste  paper,  as  well  as  from  straw,  wood,  and  other  vegetable  fibres, 
has  received  the  attention  due  to  its  importance. 

The  drawings  represent  machinery  whicli  is  in  active  operation,  built  by  first-class 
engineers,  and  of  approved  construction  ;  they  are  carefully  made  in  correct  proportions, 
and  manj'  of  them  will  serve  for  working  plans  in  the  machine-shop. 

The  consumption  of  paper,  though  it  has  increased  enormously  of  late  years,  must 
still  grow  with  the  progress  of  civilization,  and  will  in  the  future  assume  proportions,  of 
which  we  can  at  the  present  time  form  no  adequate  idea,  New  raw  materials  are  con- 
stantly required  to  satisfy  these  demands,  and  the  processes  of  their  transformation,  which 
constitute  the  principal  feature  of  modern  paper-manufacture,  cover  already  too  large  a 
field  to  be  thoroughly  mastered  by  one  mind, — a  fact,  of  which  the  author  was  fully 
conscious  when  he  undertook  this  task.  But,  having  acquainted  himself  with  the  theory 
of  the  art  by  studying  the  sciences  which  form  its  basis,  and  having  acquired  practical 
experience  by  the  manufacture  of  fine  and  coarse  papers  from  rags,  waste  paper,  straw, 
&c.,  by  the  erection  and  management  of  four  difterent  mills  in  Germany  and  America, 
and  by  visits  to  hundreds  of  other  ones  in  different  countries,  he  determined  to  make 
the  attempt. 

As  the  following  lines  were  gradually  penned,  their  progress  was  frequently  arrested 
by  deficiencies  in  the  author's  knowledge,  which  could  only  be  supplied  from  the  experi- 
ence of  other  paper- makers  and  machinists.  For  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  required 
information  he  called  on  the  owners  and  managers  of  upwards  of  fifty  of  the  prominent 
mills  in  this  country,  especially  in  'New  England;  and  he  takes  pleasure  in  testifying 
here  to  the  almost  universal  kindness  and  liberality  with  which  they  permitted  him  to 


iv 


PBEFACE. 


investigate  their  operations,  and  freely  communicated  the  results  of  many  costly  experi- 
ments and  years  of  toil. 

The  author  also  gratefully  acknowledges  the  kind  and  disinterested  assistance 
rendered  to  him  in  the  publication  of  this  book  by  Mr.  Henry  Carey  Baird. 

The  works  of  previous  writers,  and  also  the  Paper-Trade  Journal,  published  by  Mr. 
Howard  Lockwood  at  New  York,  the  Paper-Trade  Reporler,  published  by  Mr.  Champion 
Bissell  at  New  York,  and  the  Centralblatt  fur  Deutsche  Pajnerfabricatmi,  published  by  Mr. 
C.  A.  Rudel  at  Dresden,  have  been  largely  drawn  upon.  If  any  quotations  should  have 
been  made  without  stating  the  source,  the  indulgence  of  those  whose  mental  property  has 
thus  been  unintentionally  appropriated  is  herewith  solicited. 

Perfection  is  not  claimed  for  this  work;  it  will  probably  be  found  deficient  in  many 
parts,  and  may  be  improved  upon  by  future  writers.  If,  however,  it  serves  to  advance  the 
art  of  manufacturing  paper  by  adding  to  the  knowledge  of  those  who  follow  it  as  their 
profession,  the  author's  labors  will  not  have  been  spent  in  vain. 

C.  H. 

Philadelphia,  March,  1873. 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Paper, 


CHAPTER  II. 


Manufacture  of  Paper  by  Hand, 


PAGE 

9 


11 


CHAPTER  III. 
Manufacture  of  Paper  from  Rags  by  Machinery. 
SORTING,  CUTTING,  AND  DUSTING. 


SECTION  I 

ARTICLE 

1.  Purchase, 

2.  Thrashing, 

3.  Sorting  and  Cutting  by  Hand, 

4.  Rag-cutters, 

5.  Rag-dusters, 

I.  Ordinary  Construction. 
II.  Holyoke  Duster. 

III.  Devil  or  Picker. 

IV.  Eailroad  Duster. 

6.  Use  of  Dusters, 

7.  Aprons,  

8.  Waste  from  Cutting  and  Dusting, 


SECTION  II.-BOILINO. 
9.  Washing  ...... 

1 0.  Boiling  in  Tubs,  .... 

11.  Rotary  Boilers, ..... 

I.  Object  of  Boiling. 
II.  Chemicals  used. 

III.  Theoretical  Explanation  of  the  Ac- 

tion of  lime. 

IV.  Boiling  with  Soda. 

V.  Quantity  and  Qualitj'  of  Lime. 
VI.  Preparation  of  a  Milk  of  Lime. 
VII.  Filling  and  Boiling. 
VIII.  Blowing  off  and  Emptying. 
IX.  Check-valve. 

X.  Explosions. 
XI.  Constructions. 
XII.  Location  of  the  Eotary  and  Dis- 
position of  the  Boiled  Rags. 

12.  Tubs  preferred  to  Rotaries, 


13 
14 
16 
18 
21 


24 
24 
24 


25 
25 
26 


SECTION    III.  —  (a)   WASHING,    (b)  BLEACHING, 
(c)  DRAINING,  (d)  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


34 


(a)  WcLshing. 


ARTICLE 

13.  The  Engine,  ..... 

PAGE 

35 

14. 

Furnishing  and  Wa.shing, 

36 

15. 

Movement  of  the  Pulp, 

36 

16. 

Rolls,  

38 

17. 

Shaft,  

38 

18. 

Backfall  and  Tub,    .       .       .  . 

39 

19. 

Sand-trap,  ..... 

39 

20. 

Lighters,  

40 

21. 

Manner  of  Driving  and  Speed, 

43 

22. 

Bearings,  ...... 

43 

23. 

Bed-plates,  ..... 

44 

24. 

Grinding  the  Roll  and  Plate,  . 

48 

25. 

Washing,  ...... 

49 

26. 

Circulation.  Nugent's  Pulp  Propeller, 

49 

27. 

Washing-cylinders  and  Syphons, 

51 

28. 

Hammond's  Washer, 

52 

29. 

Fox's  Washer,  ..... 

54 

30. 

Efficiency  of  Washers, 

54 

31. 

Size  of  Engines,  .... 

55 

32. 

Foundation,  ..... 

56 

33. 

Discharge,  ..... 

56 

(b)  Bleaching. 

34. 

Bleaching-powders,  .... 

57 

35. 

Chemical  Action  of  Bleaching-pow- 

ders,   

58 

36. 

Strength  and  Test  of  Bleaching-pow- 

ders,   

60 

2 


CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE 

37.  Bleach-solution,  .... 

38.  Strength  of  the  Solution,  . 

^39.  Preparation  of  a  Fresh  Bleach-solu- 
tion for  every  Engine  of  Pulp, 

40.  Vitriol,  

(c)  Draining. 

41.  Drainers,  . 

42.  Construction  of  Drainers, 

43.  Waste  Bleach-liquor, 

44.  Sour  Bleaching, 

45.  Bleaching-engines, 

(d)  Bleaching  with  Gas. 

*46.  Preparation  of  the  Pulp,  . 

47.  Chlorine  Gas  and  its  Preparation, 

48.  Process  of  Bleaching  with  Gas, 


PAGE 

62 
65 

66 
66 


71 

72 
72 
73 
73 


74 

75 
76 


SECTION  IV.— (a)  MIXING,  (h)  WASHING  AND  BEAT- 
ING, (f)  SIZING,  {d)  COLORING,  (f)  PATENT  EN- 
GINES, (/)  STUFF-CHESTS  AND  STUFF-PUMPS. 

(a)  Mixing. 

49.  General  Remarks,     .       .  _     .  .77 

50.  Rules  and  Examples,       ...  77 


(b)  Washing  and  Bleaching. 

51.  Washing  and  Testing  for  Chlorine,  . 

52.  Anti-chlorine,  ..... 
63.  Beating,  

54.  Self-actors,  ..... 

55.  Plates  and  General  Construction  of 

Beaters,  ..... 

56.  Power  consumed  by  Engines,  , 

(c)  Sizing. 

57.  Comparison  between  Surface  Sizing 

and  Sizing  in  the  Engine, 

58.  Sizing  in  the  Engine, 

59.  Preparation  of  Vegetable  Size,  . 

60.  Use  of  Starch,  .... 

61.  "  Proportions  used  in  Different  Mills,  . 

62.  Addition  of  Glue  and  other  Sub- 

stances, ..... 

63.  Quality  of  the  Resin  and  Use  of  the 

Solution,  ..... 

64.  Alums  and  their  Comparative  Values, 

65.  Necessary  Quantity  of  Alum,  . 

66.  Sizing  with  Wax,  .... 

67.  Clay,  


78 
80 
80 
81 

81 
82 


82 
83 
84 
87 
87 


89 
89 
91 
91 
91 


(d)  Coloring. 

ARTICLE 

68.  White  Paper,  . 

69.  Prussian  Blue,  . 

70.  Ultramarine, 

71.  Indigo  Blue, 

72.  Aniline  Colors, 

I.  Aniline  Blue. 
II.  Aniline  Eed. 
III.  Yellow  and  Orange 

73.  Pink  or  Cochineal  Red, 

74.  Brazil  Wood,  . 

75.  Violet, 

76.  Chrome  Yellow  and  Orange, 

77.  Orange  Mineral, 

78.  Buff, 

79.  Venetian  Red,  . 
*  80.  Yellow  Ochre,  . 

81.  Quercitron  or  Oak  Bark, 

82.  Nutgalls,  . 

83.  Black, 

84.  Colored  Rags,  . 

85.  Combination  of  Colors, 

86.  Examples  of  Combinations  of  Colors, 

87.  Mixing  the  Coloring  Materials  with 

the  Pulp,  


93 
94 
96 
97 
97 


97 
98 
98 
98 
99 
99 
99 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
101 

102 


(e)  Patent  Pulping  Engines. 

88.  Kingsland's  Pulping  Engine,     .       .  103 

89.  Jordan's  Pulping  Engine,         .       .  106 

90.  Respective  Advantages  of  the  Kings- 

land  and  Jordan  Engines,     .       .  110 

91.  Gould's  Patent  Engine,     .       .  .110 

(f)  Stuff- Chests  and  Stuff-Pumps. 

92.  Stuff-chest,  HI 

93.  Mixture  of  the  Pulp  in  the  Stuff-chest,  112 

94.  The  Stuff-pump,        .       .       •  .112 

SECTION  v.— PAPER-MACHINES. 

(  A.)  The  Fourdrinier  Paper-Machine. 

95.  Historical  Sketch  and  Introductory 

Remarks,  

I.  Regidating  and  Diluting  the  Pulp. 

96.  Regulating  Box,       .       .       •  .115 

97.  Fan-pump  and  Mixing  Box,     .       .  115 
II.  Sand-Tables,  Pulp-Dressers,  and  Apro7ts. 

98.  Sand-tables,  116 

99.  Strainers,  116 

100.  BarTScreens,  117 


114 


CONTENTS. 


3 


ARTICLE  PAOE 

101.  Plate-screens,  117 

102.  Ibotson's  Strainer,     .       .       .  .121 

103.  Suction  Strainers,      ....  123 

104.  Revolving  Screens,    .       .       .  .123 

105.  Reversed  Screens,      .       .       .  .124 

106.  Disposition,  Size,  and  Management  of 

Strainers,  125 

107.  Connection  of  the  Screen-vat  with  the 

Apron,  125 

108.  Aprons,  126 

III.  The  Wire- Cloth  and  its  Attachments. 

109.  Qualities  and  Position  of  the  Wire- 

cloth,   128 

110.  The  Couch-rolls,       .       .       .  .129 

111.  Tube-rolls,  132 

112.  Suction-boxes,   .     *.       .       .       .  132 

113.  Dandy-roll,  136 

114.  Save-all  and  Water-pipes,  .       .  .136 

115.  Stretch-roll,  137 

116.  Stuff-catchers,  137 

117.  The  Shaking  Motion,        .       .  .138 

118.  The  Deckels,  139 

119.  The  Gates,  141 

120.  Length  of  the  Wire-cloth,        .       .  142 

121.  Wire-guides,  142 

122.  Patent  Cleaning  Brush,     .       .       .  143 

123.  Management  of  Wires,     .       .       .  143 

IV.  The  Presses. 

124.  Press-rolls  and  Housings,  .       .       .  145 

125.  Brass  and  Rubber-cased  Press-rolls,  .  148 

126.  Doctors,   148 

127.  Disposition  of  the  Felts,    .       .       .  149 

128.  Felt  and  Paper-carrying  Rolls,  .       .  149 

129.  Wet  and  Press-felts,  .       .       .  .160 

130.  Spread  and  Stretch-rolls,   .       .       .  150 

131.  Felt-washers,   151 

132.  Troughs  below  the  Presses,        .       .  151 

133.  Air-roll,   152 

134.  Clutch,   152 

135.  JManagement  of  Felts,       .       .       .  152 

136.  Taking  the  Paper  through  the  Presses,  153 

V.  Dryers. 

137.  Construction  of  Drying-cylinders,     .  153 

138.  Admission  and  Escajie  of  Steam,      .  154 

139.  Process  of  Drying,    ....  155 

140.  Improved  Arrangements  of  the  Steam- 

pipes,    156 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

141.  Steam-pressure  Regulator,        .       .  157 

142.  Gearing,  Size,  and  Disposition,  .  .159 

143.  Quantity  of  Fuel  required  for  Drying 

Paper,   ......  160 

144.  Dryer-felts,  Carrying-rolls,  and  Guide- 

rolls,   160 

145.  Width  and  Number  of  Dryers,         .  161 

VI.  Calenders. 

146.  Object  and  General  Construction,      .  162 

147.  Passage  of  the  Paper  over  the  Rolls,  162 

148.  Quantity  and  Quality,      .       .       .  163 

149.  Chilled  Rolls,   164 

150.  Steaming  the  Paper,         .       .       .  165 

VII.  Beels. 

151.  Different  Styles  of  Reels,  .       .  .166 

152.  Construction  of  Revolving  Reels,      .  167 

153.  Electricity,  169 

VIII.  Trimming  and  Cutting. 

154.  Slitters,  170 

155.  Cutters,  171 

156.  Continuous  Feed-cutter,    .       .       .  172 

157.  Fletcher's  Improvement,   .       .       .  175 

158.  The  Dog-cutter,        .       .       .  .177 

159.  Hammond's  Cutter,  ....  180 

160.  Selection  of  a  Cutter — Cutter-table,  .  184 

161.  Paper  in  Endless  Rolls,     .       .  .185 

Motive  Porver,  Gearing,  and  the  Machine  Room. 

162.  Motive  Power,  186 

163.  Gearing,  188 

164.  Change  of  Speed,      .       .       .  .189 

165.  Size  and  Speed,         ....  192 

166.  Foundation,  193 

167.  Machine  Room,        .       .       .  .194 

168.  Ventilators,  194 

{B.)  Cylinder  Paper-Machine. 

169.  General  Construction,       .       .       .  196 

170.  Formation  of  the  Paper,    .       .       .  198 

171.  Construction  of  the  Making-cylinder,  198 

172.  Merits  and  Demerits  of  the  Cylinder- 

Machine,   199 

173.  Combination  of  Several  Cylinders,    .  200 

(  C.)  Harper's  Improved  Paper-Machine. 

174.  Construction,  201 

175.  Advantages  over  other  Maehines,      .  202 


CONTENTS. 


4 

SECTION  VI.  -SIZING  IN  THE  WEB  OE  SURFACE 


SIZING. 

ARTICLE  PAGE 

176.  Pre^mration  of  the  Size,    .       .       .  203 

177.  Application  of  the  Solution,      .       .  205 

178.  Kneeland's  Lay-boy,        .       .  .207 

179.  Construction  and  Management  of  Dry- 

ing Lofts,  210 

180.  Drying  in  the  Web,  .       .       .  .212 

181.  Merits  and  Demerits  of  Different  Sys- 

tems of  Sizing  and  Drying,    .       .  215 

SECTION  VII.— FINISHING. 

182.  Finishing  Common  Paper,        .       .  216 


SECTION  I.— HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

192.  General  History  and  Introductory  Re- 

marks, ......  237 

193.  Matthias  Koops,       .       .       .  .238 

194.  The  Principal  Substitutes  of  the  Pres- 

ent Time  240 

SECTION  II.— FIBRES  OR  CELLULOSE. 

195.  Cliemical   Composition   and  Forma- 

tion,  241 

196.  Mechanical  Formation  and  Appear- 

ance,    ......  243 

197.  Conclusions,  245 

SECTION  III  - WASTE  PAPER. 

198.  Trade  and  General  Assortment,        .  246 

199.  Dusting  and  Sorting,        .       .       .  247 

200.  Boiling,   248 

201.  Preparation  and  Use  of  the  Soda  Solu- 

tion,  251 

202.  Washing  and  Bleaching,   .       .       .  252 

203.  Mixing,  Beating,  and  Final  Remarks,  253 


SECTION  IV.— STRAW. 

(A.)  Wrapping  Papei — Manufacture  of  White 
Straiv-Paper,  according  to  MelUer's  Directions, 
and  by  Similar  Processes. 

204.  Yellow  Straw  Wrapping-paper,        .  255 

205.  Proportions  of  Fibres  and  other  Sub- 

stances contained  in  Different  Kinds 
of  Straw,  Esparto,  and  some  other 
Plants,  256 

206.  Mellier's  Patent,       .       .       .  .256 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

183.  Plate-calenders  217 

184.  Sheet  Super-calenders,      .       .  .217 

185.  Transfer  of  the  Paper  from  the  Ma- 

chine to  the  Web  Super-calenders,  222 

186.  Web  Super-calenders,       .       .     "  .  223 

187.  Attachments  and  Disposition  of  Super- 

calenders,      .....  226 

188.  Ruling  Machines,     .       .       .  .228 

189.  Trimming  Knife,      .       .       .  .232 

190.  Hydraulic  and  Screw  Presses,    .       .  232 

191.  Stamping  Press,        ....  235 


207.  Purchase  and  Storage  of  Straw,        .  259 

208.  Cutting,  261 

209.  Soda,  262 

210.  Caustic  Soda — its  Purchase  and  Test,  263 

211.  Preparation  of  the  Solution  of  Caustic 

Soda,  264 

212.  Digestion  by  Boiling,        .       .       .  267 

213.  Washing,  .       .       .       .       .  .269 

214.  The  Wet  Machine,    .       .       .  .270 

215.  Bleaching,  270 

216.  Revolving  Straw-boilers,    .       .       .  271 

217.  Steam-pressure,         ....  271 

218.  Pressure  Gauges,      ....  272 

219.  Breaking  down  the  Straw,        .       .  272 

220.  Manchester  Paper  Company,     .       .  272 

221.  Quantity  of  Soda  Ash  required,        .  274 

222.  Yield  of  Straw,        .       .       .  .274 

(B.)  Neiu  Patented  Processes. 

223.  Principles   for   the  Construction  of 

Straw-boilers,        ....  275 

224.  John  Dixon's  Boiler,        .       .       .  275 

225.  William  Ladd's  Patent  Boiler,  .       .  278 

226.  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson's  Patent,       .  279 

227.  Morris  L.  Keen's  Process  and  Patents,  281 

228.  Washing  and  Bleaching,  .       .  .290 

229.  Bleaching  in  Rotaries,      .       .  .292' 

230.  The  Hydrostatic  Process,  .       .  .292 

231.  Ozone  Bleaching,      .       .       .  .293 

(C.)  Treatment  of  Straw-Pulp  in  the  Beaters  and 
on  the  Paper-Machine — Conclusions. 

232.  Beating,  293 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Substitutes  for  Rags. 


CONTENTS. 


5 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

233.  Paper-machines,       ....  293 

234.  Conclusious,  295 

SECTION  V. -ESPARTO  GRASS. 

235.  Its  Sources  and  Growth,    .       .  .297 

236.  Treatment  in  the  Mill,      .       .  .297 

237.  Supply,  298 

SECTION  VI.— WOOD. 

238.  The  Works  of  the  American  Wood- 

paper  Company,    ....  300 

239.  Treatment  of  the  Wood,   .       .  .300 

240.  Recovery  of  Soda  by  Evaporation,   .  302 

241.  Yield  of  Fibres,  Bleaching,  and  Con- 

clusions,       .....  303 

242.  Other  Systems  of  Boiling,        .       .  304 

243.  Orioli  Fredet  and  Matussiere's  Pat- 

ent 304 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

244.  Sulphide  of  Sodium,         .       .  .305 

245.  Adamson's  Patent,    ....  305 


SECTION  VII.— MECHANICALLY-PREPARED  WOOD- 
PULP. 


246. 

History,    .       .       .       .  . 

306 

247. 

Voelter's  System  of  Manufacturing 

Wood-pulp,  

306 

248. 

Operations  of  the  Turner's  Falls  Pulp 

Company's  Mill,  .... 

307 

249. 

Treatment  of  the  Pulp  and  Conclu- 

sions, ...... 

308 

250. 

Improvement  Patents, 

309 

SECTION  VIII.— CANE,  JUTE,  AND  MANILLA. 

251.  Growth  and  Gathering  of  Cane,       .  310 

252.  Operations  of  the  Cane-fibre  Mills,    .  310 

253.  Jute  and  Manilla,     .       .       .  .312 


.  CHAPTER  V. 

Description  of  the  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  some  Classes  of  Paper  and  Boards. 


SECTION  I.— BANK-NOTE  PAPER. 

254.  Necessary  Qualities,  .       .       .  .313 

255.  The  Paper  Money  of  the  Government 

of  the  United  States,     .       .  .313 

256.  Manufacture  of  Bank-note  and  Bond 

Paper,  314 

SECTION  II.— TISSUE-PAPER. 

257.  Operations  of  a  Tissue-paper  Mill,    .  315 

SECTION  III.— COLLAR-PAPER. 

258.  Its  Manufacture,       .       .       .  .316 

SECTION  IV.— MANILLA  PAPER. 

259.  Manilla  Grass,  317 

260.  Jute,  317 

261.  Process  of  Manufacturing,        .       .  320 

262.  Bogus  Manilla-Paper,       .       .  .321 


SECTION  v.— TOBACCO  PAPER. 

263.  Its  Manufacture,       .       .       .  .322 

SECTION  VI.— PAPER  FROM  COTTON  WASTE. 


264.  Systems  of  Manufacturing, 

322 

SECTION  VII.— BOARDS. 

265.  Binders'  Boards,       .       .       .  . 

324 

266.  W.  0.  Davey  &  Sons'  Board-mill,  . 

325 

267.  Press-boards,  

329 

268.  Straw-boards,    .       .       .       .  . 

330 

269.  Leather-boards,  

331 

SECTION  VIII.-ROOFING  AND  BUILDING  PAPER. 

270.  Roofing-paper,  .       .       .       .    •  . 

332 

271.  Building-paper  or  Building-boards,  . 

332 

SECTION  IX.— PARCHMENT  PAPER. 

272.  Use  and  Preparation, 

333 

6 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

General  Remarks  upon  Wash- Water,  Power,  Construction,  Location,  Capital, 
Management,  and  Statistics  of  Paper-Mills. 


SECTION  I.— WASH- WATER. 

ARTICLE  PAGE 

273.  Its  Importance, .....  335 

274.  Mechanical  Impurities,     .       .       .  335 

275.  Chemical  Impurities,        .       .       .  337 

276.  Sources  of  Washwater,     .       .       .  338 

277.  Systems  of  Distribution,    .       .  .339 

278.  Quantity  required,    ....  340 

279.  Pumps,   341 

SECTION  II.— Water-power. 

280.  Measuring  the  Power,       .       .  .342 

281.  Dams,  343 

282.  Water-wheels,  344 

283.  Turbines,  345 

284.  Comparative  Advantages  of  Overshot 

and  Turbine  Wheels,      .       .  .347 

SECTION  III.— STEAM-BOILERS. 

285.  Importance,   348 

286.  Heating  Surface,       .       .       .  .348 

287.  Combustion,      .....  349 

288.  Draft,   349 

289.  Grate-surface  and  firing,    .       .       .  350 

290.  Construction   of  Steam-boilers  and 

Test,   352 

291.  Feed-water,   353 

292.  Explosions,   354 

293.  Safety-boilers,   357 

294.  Consumption  of  Fuel,       .       .       .  358 

SECTION  IV.— STEAM-ENGINES. 

295.  Expansion,   358 

296.  Condensation,    .....  359 

297.  Different  Systems  of  Engines  and  Util- 

ization of  Escaping  Steam,     .       .  359 

298.  Power  of  Engines,    ....  360 

299.  Los.ses  of  Power,      .       .       .  .361 

300.  Disposition  and  Management,    .       .  362 

SECTION  v.— PIPES. 

301.  Tljeir  Use  and  Disposition,       .       .  362 

SECTION  VI.— PULLEYS,  BELTS,  AND  GEARINGS 
GENERALLY. 

302.  Belts,  364 

Index,  

Advertisements,  


ARTICLE  PAGE 

303.  Pulleys,  364 

304.  Cog-wheels  and  Shafts,      .       .  .365 

305.  Bearings,  .       .       .       .       .       .  365 

306.  Calculation  of  Speeds,  and  Sizes  of 

Pulleys  and  Cog-wheels,        .       .  367 

SECTION  VII.— MEANS  OF  TRANSPORTATION  IN 
THE  MILL. 

307.  Trucks,  367 

308.  Elevators,  369 

SECTION  VIII.— HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  THE 
MILL. 

309.  Stoves  and  Steam-pi|)es,    .       .       .  370 

310.  Ventilation,  370 

SECTION  IX.— LIGHTING. 

311.  Oil,  371 

312.  Gas,  373 

SECTION  X.— MACHINERY.  * 

313.  Quantity  and  Quality,      .       .       .  374 

SECTION  XI.— BUILDINGS. 

314.  Plans  and  Building-materials,   .       .  375 

315.  Fire-proof  Paper-mills,      .       .       .  376 

SECTION  XII.— LOCATION  AND  SITE. 

316.  Selection  of  a  Country,     .       .       .  377 

317.  Site,  378 

318.  Depreciation  of  Water-powers,  .       .  378 

319.  Comparative  Value  of  Water  and 

Steam-Power,        .       .       .  .379 

SECTION  XIII.— CAPITAL. 

320.  Cost  of  Paper-mills,  ....  380 

321.  Working  Capital,     .       .       .  .380 

322.  Conditions  of  Success,       .       .  .381 

SECTION  XIV.— LABOR  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

323.  Labor,  382 

324.  Management,  382 

SECTION  XV.— STATISTICS. 

325.  Statistics  of  the  United  States,  .       .  384 

326.  Statistics  of  all  countries,  .       .       .  385 

 388 

 399 


List  of  Illustrations. 


Wood  Engravings. 


FIG. 

1-4. 

Thrasher  for  Eags, 

PAGE 

14-15 

FIG. 

63-64. 

Stretcher  for  Coucher-jack- 

PAGE 

5. 

Rag-cutter,  »      .       .  . 

18 

ets,  .... 

130 

6-8. 

Rag-cutter, 

19 

65-66. 

Russell's  Patent  Suction-box 

9-10. 

Rag-duster, 

21 

Head,  .... 

135 

11. 

Holyoke  Rag-duster,  . 

22 

67. 

Thiery's  Wire-guide,  . 

142 

12-13. 

Railroad  Rag-duster,  . 

23 

68. 

Admittance  and  Discharge 

14-15. 

Steam-Pressure  Regulator,  . 

31 

of  Steam  from  a  Dryer,  . 

156 

16-17. 

Rotary  Rag-boiler, 

32 

69. 

Russell's      Steam  -  pressure 

18. 

Theoretical  Section  of  au 

Regulator  for  Dryers, 

158 

Engine, 

35 

70. 

Steel  Fingers  for  Calenders, 

163 

19. 

Position  of  Fly-bars,  out  of 

71. 

Stack  of  Calenders, 

165 

Centre,  .... 

38 

72-74. 

Revolving  Reels, 

168- 

-169 

20-21. 

Washing  Engine, 

40 

75. 

Slitters,  .... 

170 

22. 

Burghardt's  Engine,  . 

42 

76-77. 

Gavit's  Continuous  Feed-cut- 

23. 

Oil  Feeder  for  Engine-jour- 

ter, .... 

172- 

-173 

nals,  .... 

44 

78-79. 

Fletcher's  Improvement  on 

24-25. 

Lindsay's  Rocker  for  Engine- 

Gavit's  Cutter, 

176 

shafts,  .... 

45 

80-81. 

Dog-cutter,  Stop-cutter, 

178- 

-179 

26-28. 

Nugent  &  Coghlan's  Bed- 

82^87. 

Hammond's  Cutter, 

180- 

-184 

l^lates,  .... 

47 

88. 

Arrangement  for  Changes  of 

29-30. 

IS^ugent's  Pulp-propeller, 

50 

Speed  of  Paper-machines, 

189 

31-34. 

Hammond's  Washer,  . 

53 

89-91. 

Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.'s  Ex- 

35-36. 

Fox's  Washer, 

54 

jmnding  Pulley, 

191 

37. 

Engine  with  Four  Rolls, 

56 

92-93. 

Cylinder-machine,  Wet-ma- 

38-42. 

Cisterns  for  the  Extraction 

chine,  .... 

197 

of  Solution  from  Bleach- 

94-97. 

Skeleton  of  a  Forming-cylin- 

ing-powders. 

64-65 

der,  .... 

199 

43. 

Centrifugal  Drainer,  . 

75 

98. 

Harper's  Improved  Paper- 

44-47. 

Kingsland's  Pulping-engine, 

104 

machine, 

201 

48-49. 

Jordan  &  Eustice's  Pulping- 

99. 

Machine  for  sizing  Paper  in 

engine,  .... 

107-109 

the  Web, 

205 

50. 

Stuff-pump, 

113 

100-104. 

Kneeland's  Lay -boy,  . 

206- 

-209 

51-52. 

Fan-pump  for  a  Paper-ma- 

105. 

Drying  Apparatus  for  Sur- 

chine, .... 

115 

face-sized  Paper, 

214 

53-56. 

Pulp-dresser,  Screens,  . 

118-120 

106-108. 

Sheet  Super-calenders, 

218- 

-221 

57-59. 

Ibotson's  Strainer, 

122 

109. 

Web  Super-calenders, 

224 

60. 

Revolving  Strainer, 

124 

110. 

Web  Super-calenders, 

225 

61-62. 

Lindsay's  Patent  Apron, 

127 

111. 

Mason's  Friction-pulley, 

227 

8 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

PAGE 

112. 

Tnmming-knife, 

231 

113-114. 

Hydraulic  Press, 

233- 

-234 

115-117. 

Stamping-press, 

235- 

-236 

118. 

Boiling-tubs  for 

Waste-jja- 

f 

per, . 

249 

119. 

Dixon's  Boiler 

for  Straw, 

Wood,  &c., 

276 

PIG.  PAGE 

120-125.  Keen's  Boilers   for  Straw, 

Wood,  &c.,     .       .       .  284-289 

126-127.  Davey's  Improved  Box  for 

Bed-plates,      ...  326 

128.  Sponge-filter,      ...  337 

129.  Hoister,      ....  368 


Lithographic  Plates. 

Plate     I.  Fourdrinier  Paper-machine.  The  Wire-cloth  and  its  Attachments. 

Plate   II.  Fourdrinier  Paper-machine.  The  Presses. 

Plate  III.  Fourdrinier  Paper-machine.  The  Dryers. 

Plate  IV.  Fourdrinier  Paper-machine.  Disposition  and  Gearing.  " 

Plate   V.  Ruling-machine. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON  THE 

MANUFACTURE    OF  PAPER. 


Chapter  I. 


PAPER. 

THE  "WORD  paper  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  papyrus,  an  Egyptian 
plant,  which  was  used  for  writing  purposes  in  ancient  times. 

Papyrus,  parchment,  wood,  and  stone,  on  which  remote  history  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  retained  substantially  their  original  form  after  they  had  been  prepared 
for  writing.  To  the  Chinese  belongs  the  credit  of  having  been  the  first  who  formed 
from  fibres  the  web  which  constitutes  the  paper  of  our  time.  Their  raw  materials 
are  the  inner  bark  of  several  trees  such  as  the  mulberry,  and  the  bamboo,  rags,  rice- 
straw,  and  others.  The  infinite  variety  of  uses  to  which  paper  is  put  in  China,  as 
articles  of  clothing,  handkerchiefs,  napkins,  twine,  furniture,  &c.,  shows  the  state  of 
perfection  which  its  manufacture  has  there  reached. 

The  Chinese  consider  paper  so  indispensable  that  a  certain  quantity  is  frequently 
secured  to  their  wives  in  their  mai'riage  contracts. 

The  knowledge  of  the  art  seems  to  have  been  communicated  by  the  Chinese  to 
the  Hindoos  and  Arabs,  brought  by  the  latter  to  Spain  during  their  occupation  of 
that  country,  and  from  there  it  found  its  way  to  all  parts  of  Europe. 

Paper  made  from  cotton,  with  authentic  dates  from  the  tenth  and  earlier  cen- 
turies, is  preserved ;  but  linen  paper  cannot  be  traced  further  back  than  the  thir- 
teenth century,  from  which  time  it  seems  to  have  taken  the  lead.  From  that  period 
up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  paper  was  made  in  Europe  almost  altogether 
from  rags. 

Paper,  at  the  present  day,  is  made  from  such  an  infinite  number  of  materials 
that  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  enumerate  them  all.  They  are,  however,  all 
directly  or  indirectly  of  vegetable  produce,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  wood,  straw, 
esparto  and  manilla  grasses,  jute,  cane,  &c.,  and  the  art  of  paper-making  consists  in 
the  reduction  of  all  these  materials  into  their  primitive  fibres,  and  forming  them  into 
felted  sheets. 

2 


10 


PAPEB. 


Flax,  hemp,  and  cotton  are  reduced  to  a  very  small  proportion  of  their  original 
bulk  by  the  time  they  leave  the  weaving-mills,  and  nothing  but  the  clean  fibres  are 
contained  in  the  goods  made  from  them. 

Considering  that  out  of  a  hundred  pounds  of  flax  or  hemp,  as  it  comes  from  the 
soil,  only  about  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  good  white  linen  are  obtained,  and  only 
a  portion  of  it  (the  best  part  of  the  whole)  finds  its  way  into  the  paper-mill,  it 
seems  certainly  a  vain  attempt  to  look  for  any  produce  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
which,  in  its  original  form,  can  furnish  either  an  equal  proportionate  quantity  or 
quality  of  fibres  as  the  same  weight  of  rags. 

The  consumption  of  paper  has,  within  the  last  fifty  years,  increased  at  a  much 
greater  rate  than  the  supply  of  rags ;  the  price  of  the  latter  having  consequently 
begun  to  rise,  has  made  it  possible  to  bring  other  raw  materials  into  competition  with 
them  for  the  lower  grades  of  paper. 

The  perfection  of  the  art  has  also  enabled  the  mills  to  make  better  paper  from 
inferior  rags,  and  their  place  has  gradually  been  filled  up  by  new  fibrous  substances. 

It  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable  to  make  the  best  qualities  of  paper  from 
anything  else  but  rags,  but  they  have  to  be  reserved  for  them  alone. 

Education,  assisted  by  the  printing  press,  is  becoming  more  universal  than  ever 
before,  and  the  constantly  increasing  demands  of  civilized  humanity  on  the  paper- 
mill  can  only  be  met  by  a  corresponding  production  of  pulp  from  new  materials  or 
substitutes.  With  the  aid  of  science  this  is  being  done.  The  manufacture  of  straw, 
wood  and  esparto  pulp  has  been  so  improved  that  the  bulk  of  the  news-  aud  cheap 
book-papers  is  already  made  of  these  materials. 

The  grades  of  paper  for  which  rags  will  be  used  are  thus  gradually  reduced  in 
number ;  but  the  fact  of  their  stricter  exclusion  from  the  large  army  of  common 
papers,  only  confirms  the  opinion  of  those  paper-makers  who  are  often  heard  to 
exclaim,  in  utter  contempt  of  straw,  wood,  and  other  substitutes : 

"  Rags  are  yet  King  !" 

We  may  add  that  they  will  probably  always  remain  king,  if  that  dignity 
depends  on  their  permanent  superiority  over  all  other  substances  as  the  material  for 
the  best  and  most  valuable  kinds  of  paper. 

We  shall,  therefore,  treat  first  of  rags,  and  in  later  chapters  of  the  substitutes. 


Chapter  IL 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 

DURING  THE  eigliteenth  and  the  beginning  of  this  century  linen  and  cotton 
rags  were  sorted  only  at  the  mill,  and  principally  according  to  color. 

Chlorine  and  its  use  for  bleaching  had  not  yet  been  discovered,  and  the  color  of 
the  rags  determined  that  of  the  paper. 

They  were  then  cut  into  small  jDieces,  soaked  in  water,  and  piled  up  in  this 
moist  state  in  cellars  or  vaults,  in  order  to  produce  fermentation  or,  as  it  was  called, 
to  make  them  rot. 

The  rotting  process  lasted  from  six  to  twenty  days,  and  during  that  time  the 
rags  had  to  be  frequently  turned,  to  avoid  overheating  and  to  treat  the  whole  mass 
uniformly.  The  vegetable  gluten  which  gives  to  the  rags  a  certain  stiffness,  and  the 
fatty  and  coloring  matters,  underwent,  during  this  operation,  a  chemical  transforma- 
tion similar  to  the  putrefaction  of  decaying  plants,  which  is  constantly  carried  on  by 
nature  on  a  gigantic  scale. 

The  same  process  which  destroyed  the  gluten,  fat,  &c.,  attacked  also  the  fibres  if 
not  arrested  in  time,  and  it  required  considerable  experience  and  attention  to  conduct 
it  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  rags  were  then  washed  in  large  quantities  of  water,  and  put  in  rows  of 
wooden  or  stone  mortars  or  upright  cylinders,  wherein  close-fitting  stampers  went  up 
and  down,  moved  by  a  water-wheel,  shaft,  and  levers.  A  small  stream  of  water, 
entering  at  the  top  and  passing  through  holes  in  the  bottom,  kept  up  the  washing 
process  all  the  time.  The  pounding  was  continued  until  a  perfect  disintegration  or 
transformation  into  pulp  had  taken  place. 

No  cutting  or  tearing  instrument  having  been  used,  the  fibres  were  obtained  of 
full  length ;  and  this  is  certainly  one  of  the  causes  why  the  papers  of  that  period 
show  such  extraordinary  strength. 

This  pounding  process,  although  jDerfect  in  principle,  was  so  cumbrous  and  slow 
that  it  was  quickly  abandoned  when  the  Hollander  made  its  appearance. 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  beating-engine,  in  its  main  features 
precisely  like  those  used  at  the  present  day,  was  invented  by  the  Dutch  or  Hol- 
landers, and  with  it  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  paper-making. 


12 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  BY  HAND. 


It  is  certainly  a  just  tribute  to  the  genius  of  the  unknown  inventor  and  to 
his  country  that  the  Germans  yet  call  the  engine  the  Hollander,  in  honor  of  his 
nationality. 

After  the  rags  were  washed  and  beaten  in  this  engine,  in  the  same  manner 
as  we  now  do,  the  pulp  was  emptied,  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  into  an  open 
vat.  The  paper-maker  stood  alongside  of  this  vat,  and  dipped  a  wooden  frame 
covered  with  wire-cloth  into  it,  taking  therewith,  by  a  clever  movement,  enough 
pulp  to  form  a  sheet  of  such  thickness  as  he  wanted.  While  the  water  was  dropping 
through  the  wire,  he  shook  the  frame  in  all  directions  to  make  the  fibres  intertwine 
and  felt  themselves,  thereby  forming  a  compact  sheet  of  paper. 

The  size  of  the  sheet  was  determined  by  the  deckels,  which  formed  an  elevated 
border  all  around  it.  Their  adjustment,  as  well  as  the  whole  operation  of  making 
the  sheet,  required  great  skill ;  the  paper-makers  of  old  had  therefore  just  cause  to 
be  proud  of  their  trade,  as  everything  depended  on  their  ability  and  judgment. 

The  deckels  were  then  taken  from  the  mould,  and  the  latter  was  given  to  the 
coucher,  who  took  the  sheet  off  and  stretched  it  on  a  felt.  A  post  of  these  felts,  in 
which  they  alternated  with  the  paper-sheets  between  them,  was  subjected  to  a  strong 
pressure  in  a  hydraulic  or  other  kind  of  press,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  water 
out.  After  some  time  the  post  was  removed,  and  the  sheets  were  laid  between  other 
felts  in  the  same  way,  pressure  was  again  applied,  and  the  operation  repeated  until 
the  jjaper  had  acquired  consistency  enough  to  be  sized,  or  to  be  directly  carried  to 
the  drying-loft.  The  sizing  and  drying  were  done  on  the  same  principles  and  sub- 
stantially in  the  same  manner  as  now  practiced,  and  described  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

This  system  of  making  paper  by  hand  has  been  entirely  abandoned  in  the 
United  States,  even  the  finest  of  bank-note  paper  being  manufactured  on  the 
machine.  It  will  soon  be  everywhere  merely  a  matter  of  history,  and  we  have 
therefore  contented  ourselves  with  giving  only  the  outlines  of  it.  Most  of  the  older 
books  on  paper-making  may  be  referred  to  for  more  detailed  information. 

Though  we  are  doing  with  machinery  what  was  formerly  accomplished  slowly 
by  hand,  the  principles  which  guide  us  are  yet  the  same.  Every  part  of  the  process 
just  described  is  carried  out  in  our  modern  mills,  although  modified  under  the 
guidance  of  science  and  assisted  by  improved  machinery. 


Chapter  III. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

WE  DIVIDE  the  making  of  paper  from  rags  into  the  following  distinct  operations : 

Section  1.  Sorting,  Cutting,  and  Dusting.  « 
Section  2.  Boiling. 

Section  3.  (a)  AVashing,  (6)  Bleaching,  (c)  Draining,  (cZ)  Bleaching  with  Gas. 

Section  4.  (a)  Mixing,  (6)  Washing  and  Beating,  (c)  Sizing,  {d)  Coloring,  (e)  Patent  Engines, 

(/)  StufF-chests  and  Stuff-pumps. 
Section  5.  Paper  Machines  :  (a)  The  Fourdrinier  Paper  Machine,  (6)  The  Cylinder  Machine, 

(c)  Harper's  Improved  Machine. 
Section  6.  Surface  Sizing. 
Section  7.  Finishing. 

SECTION  1. 

Sorting,  Cutting,  and  Dusting. 

1.  Purchase. — The  rags  are  received  at  the  mill  either  mixed  or  already  roughly 
sorted. 

No  matter  how  they  are  purchased,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  article 
bought  is  really  received.  There  is  probably  no  trade  in  which  more  tricks  to  cheat 
the  buyer  are  practiced  than  in  the  rag  trade. 

Bales  are  sometimes  made  up  looking  well  outside,  and  containing  an  inferior 
article  inside. 

Water  is  sprinkled  on  the  rags,  and  we  have  even  seen  sand  put  into  them  to 
increase  their  weight.  Rags  have  always  a  natural  humidity,  which  may  vary  from 
five  per  cent,  in  fine  rags  to  seven  or  eight  in  coarse  ones,  but  no  more  than  that 
should  be  allowed.  In  doubtful  cases,  it  is  advisable  to  dry  a  lot  by  spreading  them 
out  in  a  warm  room  or  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  difierence  between  their  wet  and 
dry  weight  gives  the  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  them. 

Experience  and  careful  examination  soon  teach  how  to  detect  and  avoid 
dishonest  dealers,  and  enough  may  be  found  who  believe  in  the  axiom  that  "  Honesty 
is  the  best  policy." 


14 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Color  and  strengtli  of  material  mainly  determine  tlie  value ;  and  it  is  a  strange 
fact,  that  the  different  countries  produce  rags  so  entirely  different  in  character  that 
experienced  men  are  often  able  to  tell,  after  an  examination,  where  they  come  from. 

Some  countries  have  a  cold,  others  a  hot  climate,  and  the  people  need  a  heavier  or 
a  lighter  dress  accordingly.  Some  nations  wear  more  linen,  others  more  cotton  ;  some 
coarser,  some  finer.  City  rags  are  easily  distinguished  from  country  rags,  the  former 
being  fine  and  white,  the  latter  coarser  and  darker, 

2.  Thrashing. — All  rags  have  considerable  quantities  of  dust,  sand,  and  other  im- 
purities mechanically  mixed  with  them,  and  it  is  very  desirable  that  they  should  be 
purified  as  much  as  possible  before  undergoing  the  subsequent  wet  treatments  of  boiling 
and  bleaching.  Formerly  the  rags  were  invariably  first  assorted,  cut,  and  then  put 
through-  dusting  machines.  Consequently  an  atmosphere  of  dust  prevailed  very 
generally  in  the  sorting-rooms,  which  was  not  only  disagreeable  to  the  sight,  but  in- 
jurious to  the  health  of  the  employees. 


Fig.  1. 


Pig.  2. 


It  has  now  become  a  rule  in  many  mills  in  this  country  to  put  the  rags,  as  soon 
as  they  are  taken  from  the  bales,  into  a  dusting  machine  or  thrasher,  which  frees 
them  from  most  of  the  adhering  dust,  and  makes  them  less  objectionable  to  the 
sorters.  Fig.  1  is  a  section  lengthway,  and  Fig.  2  a  section  through  'a- a  of  Fig.  1, 
representing  a  thrasher  of     of  the  real  size. 

It  consists  of  a  wooden  eight-cornered  body  a,  on  an  iron  shaft,  revolving  inside 
of  a  light  wooden  box,  and  driven  by  means  of  belts  and  pulleys  outside.  In  this 
box,  above  and  parallel  with  the  shaft,  one  row  of  teeth  is  fastened  to  a  strong 
timber  b  ;  the  revolving  cylinder  carries  a  corresponding  number  of  teeth  in 
straight  lines. 


SOB  TING,  CUTTING,  AND  DUSTING. 


15 


A  few  inches  below  the  circle  described  by  the  points  of  the  '1-evolving  teeth,  a 
bottom  of  perforated  iron  or  wire  c,  bent  in  a  concentric  circle,  is  fastened  to  the  box. 

The  rags  are  filled  in  through  a  door  of  the  same  length  as  the  box  fastened 
with  hinges  above  the  upper  edge  of  the  circular  bottom,  and  they  are  discharged 
through  a  similar  door  on  the  opposite  side. 

As  soon  as  the  thrasher  is  loaded,  the  doors  are  closed,  the  pulley  is  started,  and 
the  revolving  teeth  carry  the  rags  up  and  through  the  stationary  ones,  constantly 
beating  or  thrashing  them  violently. 

Both  sets  of  teeth  must  be  constructed  substantially  to  sustain  these  hard 
knocks  without  breaking  or  bending.    Fig.  3  is  a  view,  and  Fig.  4  a  section  through 

Fig.  3.  Fig.  4. 


B-B  of  Fig.  3,  showing  a  tooth  of  one-quarter  of  the  real  size.  It  consists  of  a  strong 
iron  bolt  d,  bent  and  formed  to  a  point.  The  bolts  d  go  through  the  whole  body  of 
the  timber ;  they  are  fastened  with  nuts  on  the  opposite  side,  and  wood  is  filled  into 
the  sharp  triangle,  to  increase  their  strength. 

A  bottom  constructed  of  light  material  would  soon  be  torn  to  pieces.  If  wire  is 
used,  it  should  be  of  j\  to  |  inch  iron  and  No.  3  or  4  web.  Sheet-iron  jalates,  even 
if  perforated  all  over,  do  not  offer  so  much  open  space  for  the  escape  of  grit  and  dust 
as  wire.  We  have  also  seen  one  of  these  bottoms  composed  of  {  inch  flat  iron, 
standing  on  edge  and  bent  into  half-circles,  set  in  wood,  \  inch  apart  from  one  another, 
with  wooden  keys  in  three  or  four  places  to  keep  them  separate.  This  construction 
certainly  furnishes  a  strong  bottom,  but  it  makes  it  possible  for  whole  rags  to  escape 
crossways  through  the  bars. 

A  change  of  the  speed  moderates  or  increases  the  thrashing  in  the  same  propor- 
tion. Sometimes  it  may  be  desired  to  intensify  the  operation  by  reversing  the 
motion ;  and  this  can  be  done  by  means  of  one  tight  pulley  flanked  by  two  loose 
ones,  and  operated  by  open  and  cross  belts. 

The  dust  gathers  in  the  lower  part  of  the  box,  and  may  be  removed  from  there 
through  doors. 


16 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAFEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


The  objectioA  to  dusters,  that  they  waste  much  fibre,  may  be  well  founded  for 
rags  which  have  been  cut  into  small  pieces,  offering  all  around  short,  open  threads, 
which  may  be  torn  off  by  friction ;  but  whole  rags  will  certainly  stand  a  much  more 
violent  beating  without  injury.  It  may  even  be  found  that  the  thrashing  before 
cutting  will  effect  as  much,  and  cause  less  loss  than  a  gentle  dusting  of  the  rags  in 
small  pieces. 

The  thrasher  is  to  be  located  either  on  the  same  floor  with  the  sorting-room  or 
on  the  next  one  above,  so  that  the  rags  can  be  thrown  down  through  the  floor. 

This  one,  as  well  as  all  other  dusters  and  cutters,  should  be  in  a  room  other  than 
the  sorting  and  store-rooms,  to  prevent  the  dust,  which,  notwithstanding  all  precau- 
tions, escapes  sometimes,  from  settling  again  on  the  rags. 

In  some  mills  ordinary  dusters  are  used  instead  of  the  thrasher,  but,  as  the  rags 
go  through  them  more  rapidly,  they  cannot  be  expected  to  give  as  good  results. 

3.  Sorting  and  Cutting  by  Hand. — The  assortment  of  rags  has  to  be  suited  to 
the  particular  circumstances  of  the  mill.  Every  country,  nearly  every  paper-maker, 
has  a  different  one ;  but  all  of  them  make  the  following  distinctions  : 

They  divide 


According  to  fibre, 


Linen, 
Hemp, 
Cotton, 

Manilla,  ' 
Half-wool  or  woollens. 


According  to  color,  .  . 


White,  first,  second,  third  ; 

Gray,  " 

Blue, 

Red, 

Black,  containing  all  "dark  colors. 


Canvas,  ropes,  bagging,  twine,  threads,  and  others  are  also  classed  separately. 

If  a  mill  is  making  a  great  variety  of  papers,  a  large  assortment  of  all  the 
different  grades  of  rags  has  to  be  kept  on  hand ;  but,  if  judicious  managerrient  has 
reduced  the  produce  to  a  few — or  better,  to  only  one — kind  of  paper,  only  such  rags 
will  be  purchased  as  can  be  used  for  it,  and,  though  it  may  be  a  convenience,  a  large 
stock  is  not  necessary. 

Dealers  generally  sort  the  rags  so  that  none  or  little  need  be  purchased  which 
cannot  be  used  for  the  class  of  paper  made  at  the  mill.  If  mixed  country-rags  are 
purchased,  the  qualities  which  are  not  wanted  can  be  sorted  out  and  sold  to  other 
manufacturers  or  to  dealers. 

At  a  mill  where  only  one  grade  of  fine  book-paper  is  made,  we  have  seen  all  the 
rags,  no  matter  of  what  color  or  fibre,  worked  together.  Soft  cotton,  strong  linen, 
and  colored  rags  are  thus  exposed  to  the  same  boiling,  beating,  and  bleaching. 
These  operations  must  be  carried  on  far  enough  to  produce  white  pulp  from  the 


SOBTING,  CUTTING,  AND  DUSTING. 


17 


coarsest  Jibres,  and  the  strong  chemical  and  mechanical  treatment,  which  is  necessary 
to  do  this,  probably  damages  and  destroys  some  of  the  finer  and  softer  ones. 

We  believe  this  to  be  a  wasteful  system,  and  would  advise  making  at  least  enough 
grades  of  rags  to  enable  the  separation  of  the  strong  from  the  weak,  and  the  white 
from  the  colored  ones,  so  that  each  fibre  may  receive  the  treatment  it  requires  without 
being  exposed  to  that  of  its  perhaps  much  stouter  neighbor. 

No  matter  how  many  qualities  are  made,  the  rags  are  invariably  given  to  the 
sorters  after  having  been  thrashed.  The  women  doing  this  work  stand  before  a 
square  or  oblong  table,  covered  with  coarse  wire  cloth,  and  surrounded  by  enough 
square  boxes,  baskets,  or  bags  to  provide  one  for  every  grade  of  rags  which  is  to  be 
sorted  out. 

The  handiest  boxes,  which  we  have  seen  at  Holyoke,  consist  of  high  square  bas- 
kets, made  of  split  wood,  and  standing  on  four  small  iron  wheels,  on  which  they  can 
easily  be  pushed  to  any  part  of  the  room. 

A  knife  of  scythe  shape  is  fastened  to  each  table,  standing  upright,  with  the 
thick  back  against  the  worker.  It  serves  to  cut  the  rags  as  well  as  to  separate  from 
them  seams,  buttons,  buckles,  leather,  rubber,  and  other  foreign  substances. 

The  labor  of  cutting  the  rags  is  in  this  country  performed  by  machinery  for  all 
kinds  of  paper  except  the  best  qualities  of  book  and  writing  paper.  Very  fine  and 
high-priced  rags  are  exclusively  used  for  the  latter,  and  it  is  believed  that  a  smaller 
proportion  is  wasted  if  they  are  cut  by  hand.  The  machine,  of  course,  cannot  hit  the 
rags  exactly  on  the  line  of  the  warp  or  woof,  and  the  threads,  if  cut  obliquely,  are 
certainly  more  apt  to  be  lost  in  the  subsequent  operations  of  dusting,  &c.  The  knives 
of  most  cutting-machines  sometimes  tear  the  rags  instead  of  cutting  them,  esjDecially  if 
they  are  not  very  sharp,  and  a  part  of  the  threads  thus  torn  is  invariably  lost.  If  cut 
by  hand  the  rags  remain  a  longer  time  in  the  hands  of  the  ojjerative,  who  can,  while 
cutting  them  length  and  crosswise,  discover  impurities  which  had  escaped  her  obser- 
vation until  then. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  superiority  of  cutting  by  hand  over  that  by  ma- 
chine, and  the  price  of  labor  alone  can  decide  where  the  one  is  to  begin  and  the  other 
to  stop. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  establish  a  rule  for  the  sizes  into  which  rags  ought  to  be 
cut,  as  those  of  weak  material  should  be  left  in  large  pieces,  while  strong  ones  may  be 
cut  much  smaller.    The  usual  length  and  width  vary  from  two  to  five  inches. 

The  assorted  rags,  cut  or  uncut,  should  be  passed  in  review  on  a  large  table  by  the 
overseer  of  this  department,  not  so  much  to  improve  them  as  to  control  the  work  of 
the  women. 

It  is  well  known,  and  we  only  state  it  here  as  a  matter  of  record,  that  rags,  piled 
up  in  a  wet  or  damp  state,  being  then  in  the  same  conditions  as  if  prepared  for  the 
rotting  process,  will  become  heated.  Such  rags  are  to  be  carefully  kept  out  of  the 
mill,  or  turned  and  aired  frequently  if  their  j^resence  cannot  be  avoided.  Spontaneous 
combustion  resulting  from  this  cause  has  kindled  many  a  destructive  fire. 

3 


18  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPFE  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

4.  Rag  Cutters. — All  rag  cutters  may  be  comjiared  to  scissors  on  a  large  scale.  The 
stationary  part,  the  bed-knife,  presents  a  sharp  edge  to  the  moving  part  or  cutting- 
knife,  and  the  various  systems  of  rag  cutters  differ  principally  in  the  construction  by 
which  the  movement  of  the  latter  is  produced.  The  main  features  of  the  construction 
of  several  cutters  are  explained  in  the  following  lines ;  but  a  detailed  description  is 
given  of  those  only  which  have  stood  successfully  the  test  of  time : 

The  driving  shaft  of  a  cutter,  not  frequently  seen,  is  fastened  alongside  of  and 
parallel  wuth  the  feed-box,  and  carries  on  its  forward  end  a  wheel,  the  arms  of  which 
consist  of  curved  knives,  each  of  which  passes  the  bed-knife  at  every  revolution,  and 
makes  a  cut. 

Another  cutter  works  with  a  straight  uj^  and  down  movement,  like  a  guillotine, 
the  movement  being  produced  by  cranks  or  eccentrics.  The  principle  of  this  cutter 
is  certainly  correct,  as  it  tears  the  rags  less  than  any  other  one,  and  cuts  without  diffi- 
culty the  finest  cotton  and  the  heaviest  rope.  All  cutters  of  this  kind,  which  have 
heretofore  been  offered  to  the  trade,  have,  however,  been  deficient  principally  because 
they  could  not  be  made  to  perform  as  much  work  in  the  same  time  as  the  revolving 
cutters.  The  time  used  in  a  guillotine-cutter  for  the  uj^ward  movement  is  lost,  while 
revolving  knives  cut  without  intermission. 

There  is  a  very  substantial  class  of  cutters  of  great  capacity  which  have  a  solid  cast- 
iron  cylinder  of  about  eight  to  twelve  inches  diameter,  carrying  two  or  three  knives. 
The  shaft  of  this  cylinder  is  placed  parallel  and  in  the  same  horizontal  line  with  the 
bed-knife.    The  revolving  knives  are  bolted  to  it  in  such  a  way  that,  while  one  end 

strikes  the  bed-knife,  the  other  one  is 
yet  about  two  inches  distant,  thereby 
producing  the  gradual  cutting  of  shears. 

All  the  j30wer  is  consumed  while 
the  knives  are  in  contact,  and  none  is 
used  in  the  intervals ;  the  motion  would 
therefore  be  a  hacking  one  if  some 
regulator  were  not  applied.  One  or 
two  of  those  reservoirs  of  power,  called 
fly-wheels,  are  therefore  placed  on  the 
revolving  shaft,  and  should  be  large 
and  heavy. 

These  cutters  require  for  strong 
rags  several  horse-power,  and,  if  not 
very  solid,  will  soon  give  way  in  some 
part.  The  one  pictured  in  Fig.  5,  built 
by  Rice,  Barton  &  Fales,  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  is  entirely  of  iron,  and 
probably  for  this  reason  as  much  as  for  its  simplicity,  a  favorite  with  our  paper- 
maker.s.  From  personal  observation  we  can  state  that  the  large  majority  of  rag  cut- 
ters in  this  country  are  constructed  on  this  principle. 


Fig.  5. 


SOBTING,  CUTTING,  AND  DUSTING. 


19 


The  rags  are  mostly  fed  to  the  cutter  by  hand,  and  frequently  the  hands  are 
caught  by  the  knives  ancl  mutilated.  Feed  rolls  are  often  added  to  prevent  this.  The 
channels  of  the  fluted  cylindric  rolls,  which  are  sometimes  used,  soon  become  filled 
up,  and  are  thrown  out  as  useless. 

The  cutter  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  provided  with  a  cast-iron  feed-roll  a  of  about 
4  to  5  inches  diameter,  the  surface  of  which  is  covered  with  small  cones  of  about  |  to 
1  inch  diameter  at  the  base,  and  I  to  1  inch  high,  each  one  of  which  acts  as  a 
finger  in  holding,  and,  by  its  revolving  motion,  pushing  the  rags.  The  surface  of 
this  roll  cannot  easily  be  filled  up,  and  it  deserves  to  be  recommended  as  a  safeguard 
for  the  operator. 

Fig.  6  is  a  section  through  the  middle  of  a  cutter,  of  5^  of  the  real  size,  or  ^  inch 


Fig.  6. 


per  foot,  and  Figs.  7  and  8  show  the  revolving  knives  alone,  in  view  and  section,  of  j\ 
of  the  real  size,  or  1  inch  per  foot. 

The  revolving  knives  b  b  b  are  of  cast-iron,  held  in  their  positions  by  two  keys 
c,  without  any  other  fastening.  The  keys  c  end  in  bolts  which  can  be  drawn  up  by 
a  nut.  These  cast-iron  knives  require  no  sharpening,  being  in  such  a  position  that 
they  form  sharp  angles  with  the  outside  circle,  on  which  they  wear  off",  and  thus 


20 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


retain  a  sharp  edge  all  the  time.  Two  set-screws  p  p  bear  on  the  back  end  of  each 
knife  b,  and  whenever  it  has  been  worn  off  so  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  move  it 
out,  the  keys  c  are  loosened  and  the  knives  pushed  forward  by  means  of  p  p.  We 
know  of  a  mill,  where  one  set  of  such  cast-iron  knives  has  served  for  years,  and  is 
yet  in  as  good  order  as  ever. 

Shaft  D  is  driven  by  a  belt,  and  can  be  put  in  and  out  of  gear  by  the  lever  f. 
It  drives  in  its  turn  the  shaft  of  the  revolving  knives  and  the  shaft  e,  which  moves 
the  feed-apron  and  roll. 

The  revolving  knives  are  running  with  the  same  speed  all  the  time,  but  the 
speed  with  which  the  rags  are  fed  varies  with  the  length  into  which  they  are  to  be 
cut.  The  slower  the  rags  are  pushed  in,  the  longer  are  they  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  knives,  and  the  shorter  will  they  be  cut. 

The  shafts  d  and  e  are  therefore  suj^plied  with  corresponding  sets  of  pulleys  of 
different  sizes,  by  means  of  which  the  speed  of  e  can  be  changed. 

The  feed-roll  a  rests  in  two  levers,  which  turn  on  shaft  e,  and  are  connected  by 
a  crosspiece  above  a.  A  spurwheel  on  e  drives  another  one  on  the  feed-roll  shaft, 
and  the  relative  positions  of  these  wheels  are  not  altered  by  any  change  in  the  position 
of  A.  The  feed-roll  is  free  to  rise  up  and  make  room  for  any  thick  package  of  rags, 
and  retains  all  the  time  its  revolving  motion.  The  shaft  of  the  revolving  knives 
carries  a  flywheel  g,  and  the  aj)ron  which  feeds  the  rags  to  the  roll  a  is  supported  at 
the  ends  by  the  rolls  h  and  i.  Roll  ii  is  driven  from  shaft  e  by  a  belt,  and  the 
apron  may  be  stretched  by  moving  out  the  roll  i  by  means  of  the  screw  k. 

The  bed-knife  l  is  of  steel,  fastened  on  a  cast-iron  body,  and  can  be  set  up  against 
the  revolving  knives  by  two  set-screws,  which  bear  on  its  back  end. 

The  apron  o,  running  in  a  box  and  over  the  rolls  m  and  n,  receives  the  cut  rags, 
and  delivers  them  at  any  desired  j^oint,  m  is  a  stretch-roll,  which  may  be  moved  in 
or  out  by  means  of  a  screw  at  each  end ;  it  is  also  driven  from  d  by  a  belt,  and  com- 
municates its  motion  to  the  apron. 

This  cutter  makes  one  hundred  or  more  revolutions  per  minute,  and  requires  a 
strong  foundation.  Being  usually  situated  in  one  of  the  upper  stories,  if  not  the 
highest  story  of  the  mill,  it  should  be  suj)ported  by  heavy  timbers  resting  on  strong 
walls  and  pillars. 

Stump  knives  of  any  kind  invariably  tear  the  rags  instead  of  cutting  them, 
require  more  power,  accomplish  less,  and  cause  much  more  waste  than  sharp  ones. 

If  the  cutter  is  not  constructed  so  that  the  knives  sharpen  themselves  while 
wearing  down,  several  sets  must  be  kept  on  hand,  frequently  exchanged,  and  sharp- 
ened on  a  grindstone. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  a  machine  which  would  cut  the  rags  both 
length  and  crosswise  in  one  operatian,  but  so  far,  like  many  other  complicated  devices, 
they  cannot  compete  with  the  simpler  ones. 

To  facilitate  the  work  of  the  engines,  it  is  desirable  that  coarse,  strong  rags 
should  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are  frequently  passed  two 


SOBTIJSfG,  CTJTTINO,  AND  BUSTING. 


21 


or  three  times  through  the  cutter.  To  avoid  this  double  operation,  some  mills  use 
two  cutters,  one  behind  the  other,  connected  by  an  aj)ron  carrying  the  rags  from  the 
outlet  of  one  to  the  feed-table  of  the  other  cutter.  We  would,  however,  suggest 
that  two  cutters,  if  used  together,  should  be  disposed  at  right  angles  against  each 
other,  so  that  the  rags  which  have  been  cut  lengthwise  on  the  first  cutter  will  be 
carried  by  the  aprons  in  the  same  jDosition  to  the  second  one,  and  there  receive  a 
cross  cut. 

Rag  cutters  fill  the  room  in  which  they  are  being  worked  with  dust,  and  to  avoid 
this  they  are  frequently  provided  with  caps,  similar  to  those  covering  the  roll  of  an 
engine,  and  connected  by  wooden  spouts  with  a  ventilator,  drawing  the  dust  and  air 
from  the  top  of  the  cover.  One  ventilator  is  sufficient  for  several  rag  cutters,  and 
not  only  abates  a  nuisance,  but  collects  the  dust,  a  material  of  some  value  for  lower 
grades  of  paper,  which  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

From  the  cutter  the  rags  go  directly  to  the  duster,  where  they  are  to  be  freed 
from  sand,  straw,  metals,  and  other  foreign  substances. 

5.  Rag  Dusters. — I.  The  following  Fig.  9  represents  a  section  lengthway  through 
the  box,  and  Fig.  10  a  view  of  the  feed  end,  of  one  of  the  most  generally  used  rag 
dusters,  at  about  g'^  of  real  size,  or  %  inch  per  foot. 


This  duster  is  eight-cornered,  rests  at  the  lower  end  in  the  stand  c,  and  carries 
at  the  upper  end  a  cast-iron  ring  a,  supported  by  the  two  flanged  pulleys  b  b.  It 
is  set  in  motion  by  the  shaft  d,  and  pinion  e,  which  latter  turns  the  spurwheel  f. 
The  duster  is  covered  with  coarse  No.  3  or  4  wire  netting,  as  far  as  it  is  inclosed  in 
the  wooden  box.  The  rags  enter  at  the  higher  end,  and  descend  gradually,  while 
revolving,  to  the  lower  open  end  g,  where  they  fall  out.  The  dust  and  im])urities, 
which  pass  through  the  wire,  collect  on  the  bottom  below,  and  can  be  removed  through 
side  doors. 

These  dusters  have  sometimes  three  or  four  cast-iron  rings  or  tires  like  a, 
extend  only  as  far  as  the  box,  and  have  no  stand  and  bearing  c.  They  are  then 
supported,  directly  under  the  centre-line  by  one  flanged  roller,  like  b,  for  every  iron 
ring.    A  long  shaft,  driven  by  a  belt  and  pulley  outside,  carries  all  these  rollers  and 


22 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


revolves  tlie  duster  by  the  friction  on  them.  The  rings,  being  supported  only  at  one 
point,  must  be  held  in  their  position  by  two  little  iron  rollers,  one  on  each  side,  fast- 
ened to  the  frame  of  the  casing. 

II.  Holyoke  Duder. — The  dusters  are  often  provided  with  a  centre-shaft, 

studded  with  spokes  or  pins,  and  turning 
in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  wire. 
The  pins  are  set  in  a  spiral  line,  push- 
ing the  rags  forward  while  brushing 
them  against  the  netting. 

In  many  fine  New  England  mills 
the  centre-shaft  carries  sheet-iron  spiral- 
shaped  wings,  instead  of  pins.  '  The  cyl- 
inders are  placed  horizontally,  as  the 
rags  are  pushed  through,  and  require  no 
fall.  The  inside  shaft  and  a  shaft  carry- 
ing one  of  the  sets  of  rollers,  on  which 
the  cylinder  rests,  are  driven  by  sepa- 
rate belts.  Fig.  11  shows  one  of  these  dusters,  as  made  by  Messrs.  Pattee  &  Fair- 
child,  in  Holyoke,  Mass. 

HI.  Devil,  or  Picker. — If  coarse  or  very  dirty  rags  are  used,  it  is  desirable  to 
give  them  a  more  violent  shaking  than  they  can  receive  in  ordinary  dusters,  and  then 
a  devil  is  called  on  for  assistance.  In  the  devil  the  axe  alone  is  moving,  and  carries  a 
wooden  cone  of  4  to  6  feet  length,  and  6  to  8  inches  diameter  at  one,  and  9  to  12 
inches  diameter  at  the  other  end.  This  cone  is  dotted  in  a  spiral  line  with  iron  pins, 
firmly  bolted  all  through  the  wood.  The  author  has  used  such  a  cone,  with  pins 
screwed  into  the  wood  only  three  to  four  inches  deep,  but  it  was  not  very  long  before 
most  of  them  were  loose  and  torn  out.  None  but  the  strongest  fastenings,  similar  to 
those  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  will  answer.  The  circular  cover  of  this  devil  is  com- 
jDOsed  of  heavy  (3  to  4  inch)  planks,  bolted  on  to  cast-iron  ends.  To  the  uppermost 
of  these  planks  a  row  of  pins,  like  those  on  the  cone,  is  bolted  in  the  same  manner 
as  to  B  in  Fig.  1,  and  disjjosed  so  that  the  revolving  pins  may  pass  between  them. 

The  bottom  is  also  circular  and  of  strong  wire  netting  or  perforated  sheet  iron, 
through  the  holes  of  which  a  good  deal  of  dirt  and  dust  falls  into  a  space  underneath, 
left  for  that  purpose.  The  rags  are  fed  in  on  top  at  the  smaller  end  of  the  cone,  and 
come  out  shattered  and  torn  at  the  larger  end. 

The  difference  between  this  devil  and  the  thrasher  is  only  that  the  revolving 
centre-piece  of  the  former  is  a  cone,  and  that  of  the  latter  a  cylinder ;  that  the  teeth 
or  pins  are  set  in  a  spiral  line  on  the  cone ;  that  the  casing  is  circular ;  and  that  the 
rags  are  fed  continuously  to  the  devil,  and  only  at  intervals  to  the  thrasher. 

The  devil  runs  with  about  200  to  400  revolutions,  while  ordinary  dusters,  like 
those  shown  in  Figs.  9,  10,  and  11,  have  a  moderate  speed  of  about  30  turns  per 
minute. 


SOETING,  CUTTING,  AND  DUSTING. 


23 


IV.  Railroad  Duster. — Within  the  past  few  years  the  so-called  railroad  dusters 
have  frequently  taken  the  place  of  devils.  Fig.  12  shows  one  of  them,  in  front 
elevation,  partly  in  section,  and  Fig.  13  as  seen  from  above,  with  the  covers  partly 
removed.    It  is  drawn  on  a  scale  of  |  inch  per  foot,  or  -^^  of  the  real  size. 


Fig.  12. 


The  cylinders  A,  are  of  cast  iron,  and  their  number,  like  the  cars  of  a  train,  is 
hardly  limited. 

The  wrought-iron  pins  are  set  in  spiral  lines,  so  that  the  rags  are  not  only 
pushed  forward  over  the  bottom,  but  also  move  sideways.  The  bottom  b,  is  again 
formed  of  coarse  wire  netting  or  perforated  sheet  iron,  and  follows  the  course  of  the 
pins.  The  pulleys  c  and  d  are  connected  by  a  belt,  and  e  and  f  by  another  one, 
while  one  common  belt  envelops  both  of  these  belts  and  all  the  pulleys,  c,  d,  e, 
and  F.    A  pulley  on  the  shaft  of  pulley  c  thus  puts  all  the  cylinders  in  motion. 

The  rags  are  fed  in  through  an  opening  in  the  cover  at  one  end,  and  the  cylin- 
ders forward  them  from  one  to  another  over  the  bottom  b,  until  they  fall  out  at  the 
other  end.    The  cylinders  make  about  150  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  covers  are  held  down  by  washers,  and  can  easily  be  turned  up  on  hinges  to 
remove  obstructions  on  the  teeth  or  cylinders. 


24 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


For  convenience,  as  well  as  quick  and  efficient  work,  this  duster  is  preferred  to 
all  others-  by  those  who  use  it. 

6.  Use  of  Dusters. — In  many  mills  the  cut  rags  are  passed  through  several  dusters; 
as,  for  instance,  first  through  a  devil  or  a  railroad  duster,  and  then  through  an  open  , 
cylinder  or  a  Holyoke  duster.  For  fine  cut  rags  the  latter  alone  is  generally  con- 
sidered sufficient.  In  some  carefully  managed  mills,  the  dust  from  white  rags  is 
again  passed  through  the  duster,  and  many  small  pieces  of  rags  and  threads  are 
thereby  saved.  It  would  i:)robably  pay  very  well  for  large  mills  to  have  a  duster  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  passing  through  it  the  dust  from  all  the  other  ones. 

7.  Aprons. — The  rags  after  having  been  fed  to  the  cutter  ought  to  pass  from 
there,  without  any  assistance,  through  additional  cutters,  devils,  and  dusters,  until 
they  fall  on  the  floor  above  the  boiler  or  directly  into  it.  They  are  transj^orted 
from  one  of  these  machines  to  the  next  one,  sometimes  far  off,  by  aprons,  such 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  An  open  box,  G  to  20  inches  wide,  with  stationary  sides 
and  movable  bottom,  represents  an  apron.  The  movable  bottom  o,  or  the  apron 
proper,  consists  mostly  of  strong  canvas  supported  by  a  board  or  several  light  rolls, 
and  two  larger  rolls,  m  and  n  on  the  turning  points.  The  ends  are  sewed  together, 
while  the  apron  is  spread  around  the  rolls,  and  it  is  thus  made  endless.  One  of  the 
larger  rolls  m  is  driven  by  a  belt  and  pulley,  and  in  its  turn  moves  the  apron.  A 
stretch-roll  m,  by  which  the  apron  can  be  kept  in  the  proper  state  of  tension,  is  also 
necessary. 

The  rags  falling  on  such  an  apron  are  carried  off  in  the  direction  in  which  it 
moves,  horizontally  or  uj)wards  in  an  incline,  and  fall  at  the  end  either  on  another 
apron,  perhaps  at  right  angles  to  the  first  one,  or  into  another  machine. 

Sometimes  stri^^s  of  wood  are  fastened  across  the  apron,  but  they  are  not  nec- 
essary. 

Some  aprons  are  composed  of  two  narrow  leather  belts,  across  and  on  which  strips 
of  wood,  about  one  inch  wide  and  I  inch  thick,  are  riveted,  thus  forming  a  wooden 
apron.  The  strips  are  only  about  \  inch  apart,  not  enough  to  allow  rags  to  fall 
through  between  them. 

8.  Waste  from  Cutting  and  Dusting. — Good  foundations  and  tightly-closing  boxes, 
to  prevent  the  dust  as  much  as  possible  from  escaj)ing,  are  required  for  all  dusters. 

Every  operation  in  the  process  of  transforming  rags  into  paper  causes  a  loss  of 
fibres,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  avoid  as  many  of  them  as  possible.  Fine  paper 
cannot,  however,  be  made,  esj)ecially  from  inferior  rags,  without  a  thorough  process 
of  cleaning,  and  in  that  case,  where  the  better  quality  fully  makes  up  for  the  losses 
incurred,  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  sorting  and  dusting.  For  lower 
grades  of  paper  some  of  tliese  operations  may  be  omitted,  and  the  first  cost,  labor, 
and  waste,  which  they  involve,  saved. 

The  loss  suffered  by  the  rags  from  cutting  and  dusting  can  hardly  be  estimated, 
as  it  depends  on  the  raw  material,  the  number  and  nature  of  the  machines  used,  and 
their  management. 


BOILING. 


25 


Proteaux,  in  his  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  Paper  and  Boards, 
give*,  however,  the  following  figures  for  the  waste  of  rags  by  sorting,  cutting,  and 


dusting : 

Whites,  fine  and  half  fine,  .       .       .       .       .       .       .  6  to  9  per  cent. 

"      coarse,   10  to  15  " 

Cottons,  white,   6  to  10  " 

colored,   10  to  13  " 

Pack  cloths  and  coarse  threads  containing  straw,        .       .  15  to  20  " 

Ropes,  not  of  hemp,   16  to  18  " 

Hempen  ropes  containing  much  straw,        .              .       .  18  to  22  " 


Though  our  manufacturers  may  obtain  different  results  from  their  rags,  these 
figures  give  a  good  idea  of  the  proportion  in  which  the  different  qualities  lose  under 
the  same  treatment. 


SECTION  11. 
Boiling. 

9.  Washing. — The  rags,  after  having  been  cut  and  dusted,  are  in  some  mills 
subjected  to  a  washing  process  in  a  machine  which  resembles  a  cylinder  duster,  im- 
mersed in  a  cistern,  with  a  constant  stream  running  through  it. 

This  wet  duster  may  be  dispensed  with  if  the  boiling  and  subsequent  washing 
are  carried  on  in  a  thorough  manner.  We  have  not  found  one  of  them  in  the 
numerous  mills  which  we  have  visited  in  this  country. 

10.  Boiling-  in  Tubs. — The  rotting  process  of  old  has  been  entirely  superseded  by 
boiling  with  alkalies. 

Stationary  wooden  or  iron  tubs  used  to  be  employed  altogether  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  in  some  mills,  even  at  this  day,  preferred  to  rotaries,  and  constructed  sub- 
stantially like  the  tubs  used  for  boiling  waste-paper  (see  Chapter  IV,  Section  III). 
The  rags  are  carried  by  a  perforated  false  bottom,  below  which  steam  is  introduced 
through  an  open  pipe  or  coil ;  and  the  liquor,  being  thus  heated,  boils  up  in  the 
centre-pipe,  and  is  spread  uniformly  over  the  rags  by  means  of  the  bonnet.  It  per- 
colates through  the  rags,  collects  again  below,  and  recommences  the  same  circulation. 
The  liquor  is  a  solution  of  soda  ash,  caustic  soda,  or  lime  in  water. 

After  the  rags  have  been  boiled  for  ten  to  twenty  hours  the  entrance  of  steam  is 
stopped,  the  liquid  drawn  off',  the  lid  removed,  and  the  rags  are  thrown  out  with 
forks  or  other  tools  operated  by  hand. 

This  operation  offers  several  serious  difficulties.  It  is  very  difficult  to  boil  the  rags 
uniformly,  because  the  liquor  may  descend  more  freely  in  one  place,  depriving  the 
rest  of  their  share ;  there  is  a  constant  loss  of  steam  through  the  imperfectly  closing 

4 


26 


MANTJFACTTJBE  OF  PAFEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MAGHINEBY. 


covers,  and  tlie  emjDtying  of  the  boiled  rags  is  very  hard  and  disagreeable  work, 
unless  a  hoisting  apparatus  is  provided  for  it.  « 

11.  Rotary  Boilers. — Eotary  boilers  are  not  liable  to  these  objections,  and  have 
very  generally  gained  the  ascendency.  The  devices  for  their  construction  are  very 
numerous ;  but  few  have  stood  the  test  of  time,  and  we  content  ourselves  there- 
fore with  the  discussion  of  the  one  which  is  used  in  most  of  our  mills. 

It  is  a  wrought-iron  cylinder  of  from  10  to  25  feet  in  length,  and  from  6  to  8 
feet  diameter,  with  cast-iron  heads  ending  in  journals,  as  represented  by  Figs.  16 
and  17. 

It  is  suspended  horizontally  and  provided  with  gearings,  by  means  of  which  it 
can  be  revolved.  One  or  two  manholes  are  used  for  filling  and  emptying.  The 
steam  enters  through  the  centre  of  one  or  both  journals. 

Let  us  first  see  what  we  expect  this  boiler  to  do,  and  then  how  it  will  have  to 
be  constructed  to  answer  the  purpose. 

I.  Object  of  Boiling. — The  object  of  boiling  rags  is  to  extract  or  destroy  the  fatty, 
glutinous  and  coloring  substances  surrounding  the  pure  fibre,  which  is  needed  by 
the  paper-maker. 

II.  Chemicals  used. — Alkalies  in  solution  and  ait  a  high  temperature  have  been 
found  to  accomplish  all  this,  but  there  are  many  different  opinions  as  to  which  and 
what  quantities  of  them  should  be  used. 

Mr.  Planche  in  his  work,  De  V Industrie  du  Papier,  recommends  soda  alone  for 
the  finest,  lime  alone  for  the  coarsest,  and  a  mixture  of  both  for  the  intermediate 
grades  of  rags. 

The  author  has  compared  the  experience  and  results  obtained  in  a  large  number  of 
the  best  mills  in  the  United  States,  and  has  found  that  nearly  all  of  them  use  lime 
alone  in  the  rotaries,  and  that  they  obtain  as  large  a  proportion  of  paper  from  their 
rags  as  the  manufacturers  of  any  other  country,  while  their  produce,  especially  in  the 
New  England  States,  has  no  superior  in  color,  purity,  and  strength. 

III.  Tlieoretical  Explanation  of  the  Action  of  Lime. — We  shall  try  to  give  a 
theoretical  explanation  of  this  fact. 

Those  who  advocate  the  use  of  soda  give  as  a  reason  for  its  preference  that  water 
readily  dissolves  it,  while  it  cannot  hold  more  than  ya'^oth  part  of  its  weight  of  lime 
in  solution. 

Contrary  to  the  general  rule  for  other  substances,  hot  water  dissolves  less  lime 
than  cold  water. 

At  32  degrees  Fahr.  water  dissolves    g of  lime. 

<<    919         "  «  U  U  1         <<  « 

A  moderately-sized  boiler  contains  over  10,000  pounds  of  water,  and  then  holds 
about  8  pounds  of  lime  in  solution.  But  these  8  pounds  are  immediately  absorbed 
by  the  fatty  and  other  matters,  with  which  the  lime  forms  insoluble  calcareous  soaps. 


BOILING. 


27 


The  water  then  takes  up  another  8  pounds,  again  delivers  them  to  the  fat, 
gluten,  color,  &c.,  and  so  on  until  all  the  substances  which  have  any  affinity  for 
lime  have  entered  the  new  association. 

If  too  much  lime  is  present  the  excess  will  be  useless,  but  also  harmless,  because 
so  little  of  it  is  in  solution,  and  even  that  is  soon  transformed  into  insoluble  carbonate 
of  lime  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  as  such  devoid  of  all  action  on  fibres. 

If  an  excess  of  soda  has  been  used,  it  will  remain  soluble,  and  act  upon  the 
fibres  as  long  as  the  rags  are  not  washed  perfectly  clean. 

This  theory  corresponds  with  the  facts,  and  also  seems  to  indicate  that  lime 
causes  less  waste  than  soda.  We  believe  that  careful  observers  will  find  this  to  be 
also  borne  out  by  experience. 

IV.  Boiling  with  Soda. — It  has  been  found,  however,  that  some  colors  with- 
stand the  action  of  lime,  but  succumb  to  soda,  and  in  such  cases  the  latter  may  be 
used  to  advantage. 

We  know,  for  instance,  a  paj)er-mill,  where  the  colored  cuttings  of  a  calico-print 
mill  are  made  into  flat-cap  paper. 

They  are  first  boiled  with  about  5  per  cent,  of  lime  in  a  rotary,  washed  in  the 
engine,  and  emptied  into  drainers,  then  again  put  into  a  rotary,  and  boiled  with  a 
solution  containing  2  pounds  of  soda  ash  for  every  100  pounds  of  rags.  The  first 
boiling  does  not  destroy  all  the  colors,  especially  the  red  ones ;  but  after  the  second 
operation  the  pulp  is  as  well  discolored  as  that  from  white  rags.  A  single  boiling 
with  mixtures  of  lime  and  soda  was  tried  unsuccessfully. 

We  should  advise  in  all  cases  the  use  of  plenty  of  lime  alone  first ;  but  if  it  is 
found  that  some  colors  are  not  destroyed  by  it,  to  add  1  to  5  j)er  cent,  of  soda  ash, 
or,  if  that  also  should  be  insufficient,  to  boil  the  rags  a  second  time  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda. 

It  will  be  thus  easy  for  any  intelligent  paper-maker  to  establish  a  rule  for  the 
treatment  of  every  kind  of  rags  used  by  him. 

V.  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Lime. — The  quantity  of  lime  used  varies,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  rags,  from  5  to  15  pounds  per  100  weight.  10  to  15  per 
cent,  are,  for  example,  necessary  for  gray  and  blue  linen. 

The  lime  should  be  fresh  and  in  lumps,  because  its  powder  is  very  quickly  trans- 
formed into  carbonate  of  lime  by  the  action  of  the  air,  to  which  it  offers  a  large 
surface. 

It  is  the  caustic  lime  alone  which  is  wanted ;  while  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  equal 
to  and  as  useless  as  limestone  before  it  is  burnt.  Pure  limestone  (CaO,C02)  is  a  com- 
bination of  oxide  of  calcium  (CaO)  with  carbonic  acid  (CO2).  It  is  the  object  of  the 
burning  operation  to  drive  out  the  carbonic  acid,  leaving  caustic  lime  (CaO)  in  the 
kiln. 

When  a  long  time  exposed  to  the  air,  as  for  instance  in  walls  as  mortar,  it  takes 
carbonic  acid  from  the  air  and  forms  again  limestone. 

VI.  Preparation  of  a  Milk  of  Lime. — Square  wooden  boxes  are  mostly  used  for 


28 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


dissolving  lime,  and  they  are  often  so  small,  that  they  will  not  hold  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  water  to  make  a  liquor  which  can  be  well  strained. 

A  circular  sheet-iron  tank  of  5  to  6  feet  diameter  and  3  to  5  feet  depth,  with  an 
agitator  turning  in  the  lower  part  of  the  pan  by  means  of  gearing,  would  be  an  im- 
provement on  the  wooden  box.  Fill  this  tub  to  |  with  water,  and  boil  it  by  means 
of  a  steam  pipe,  which  enters  at  the  lower  part.  Then  hang  into  it,  on  rods  laid 
across  the  tank,  a  sheet-iron  basket  of  about  2  feet  diameter  and  2  feet  depth,  perfor- 
ated all  over  with  i  inch  holes,  and  put  the  lime  into  it.  The  water,  entering 
through  the  holes,  slackens  the  lime,  carrying  it  off  and  leaving  the  stone  behind. 
The  slowly  turning  agitator  holds  it  in  suspension  until  it  is  drawn  off  through  a 
valve  in  the  bottom,  passed  through  a  strainer  of  No.  10  to  12  wire  cloth,  and  let 
into  the  boiler.  A  finer  screen  (No.  40  to  50)  may  be  laid  across  the  manhole  to 
keep  out  finer  particles  of  sand  and  grit. 

VII.  Filling  and  Boiling. — A  boiler  of  20  feet  length  and  6  feet  diameter  holds 
about  4000  to  5000  pounds  of  rags,  and  the  larger  part  of  them  should  be  packed  in 
before  the  lime  is  added.  After  it  has  been  filled  with  rags  and  enough  lime,  water 
niust  be  run  into  the  boiler  to  fill  it  above  the  centre,  so  that  no  steam  can  enter 
without  passing  through  it.  If  sufficient  water  is  not  used,  the  rags  will  come  from 
the  boiler  dark-looking,  as  if  they  were  burnt ;  and  no  amount  of  washing  or  bleach- 
ing can  make  up  for  the  bad  boiling  caused  by  a  want  of  water. 

After  the  manholes  have  been  closed,  the  boiler  started,  and  steam  turned  on, 
the  pressure  must  be  kept  up  for  ten  to  fifteen  hours,  the  steam  blown  off,  and  the 
boiler  emptied. 

VIII.  Bloiving-off  and  Emptying. — Some  boilers  have  a  false,  perforated  iron 
head,  to  allow  a  stationary  pipe,  connected  with  an  outside  one  through  the  centre  of 
the  journal,  to  reach  down  nearly  to  the  bottom  or  shell.  Before  emptying  the  rags, 
the  valve  of  this  pipe  is  opened,  and  the  liquor  forced  out  through  it  by  the  steam 
pressure  inside.    This  is  done  to  facilitate  the  subsequent  process  of  washing. 

The  liquid,  being  driven  out  with  considerable  force,  undoubtedly  carries  with  it 
a  good  many  fibres  which  might  otherwise  be  saved,  causing  a  loss  which  is  more 
than  an  offset  for  any  benefit  that  might  be  derived  from  the  operation. 

It  is  better  to  blow  off  the  steam,  while  the  boiler  is  standing  still,  from  a  valve 
G  on  top,  which  is  covered  inside  by  a  large  plate  of  perforated  iron,  to  prevent  the 
steam  from  carrying  small  rags  along. 

The  manholes  are  then  opened,  the  boiler  put  in  motion,  and  the  contents 
emptied  on  a  floor  slanting  to  a  centre,  through  which  the  liquor  can  drain  off. 

IX.  Check-valve. — The  rotary  is  usually  in  direct  communication  with  the 
steam-boiler  by  pipes.  The  steam  must  pass  through  a  substantial  check-valve  before 
entering  the  rotary,  to  prevent  its  contents  from  being  forced  back  into  the  steam- 
boiler,  if  the  pressure  therein  should  at  some  moment  be  less  than  that  in  the  rotary. 

If  not  regulated  in  some  manner,  the  pressure  in  the  rotary  is  usually  the  same 
as  in  the  steam-boiler,  less  a  few  pounds  lost  on  the  way  from  one  to  the  other.  But 


BOILING. 


29 


if  a  demand  for  steam  is  suddenly  made  on  the  steam-boiler  from  other  sources,  its 
pressure  goes  down,  and  the  steam  in  the  rotary  must  force  the  liquor  back  into  the 
steam-boiler,  unless  it  is  cut  off  by  a  check -valve. 

X.  Explosions. — A  great  many  rotary  boilers  have  lately  exploded,  spreading 
destruction  all  around  them;  and  theories  as  strange  as  manifold  have  been  advanced 
to  explain  these  disasters.  The  author  does  not  say  that  all  of  them  are  wrong ;  but 
why  look  for  doubtful  explanations  when,  in  too  many  cases,  the  most  elementary 
rules  of  mechanics  have  been  sinned  against  in  the  construction  of  these  boilers. 

It  has  been  pretended  that  terrific  explosions  could  not  arise  from  gradually  in- 
creased high  pressure  alone ;  that  it  would  only  crack,  but  not  burst  a  boiler.  This 
theory,  though  unsupported  by  facts,  has  been  largely  accepted  as  true. 

A  series  of  experiments  was  made  in  1871  by  the  United  Railroad  Companies 
of  New  Jersey,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  F.  B.  Stevens,  on  grounds  near  New 
York,  for  the  sake  of  investigating  the  cause  of  explosions  of  steam  generators.  At 
one  of  them,  witnessed  by  Messrs.  B.  F.  Isherwood  and  Sidney  A.  Albert,  Chief  Engi- 
neers of  the  United  States  Navy,  detailed  by  the  Navy  Department,  and  other  gentle- 
men connected  with  the  manufacture  and  suj^erintendence  of  steam  generators,  a 
boiler  was  exploded  by  over-pressure,  without  any  other  cause. 

An  old  return  tubular  steamboat  boiler  had  been  selected  for  the  purpose.  It 
was  tested  several  times  by  hydrostatic  pressure,  and  when  tried,  on  Sej)tember  2d, 
1871,  with  60  pounds,  twelve  of  the  inside  braces  gave  way.  They  having  been 
repaired,  30  pounds  pressure  were  put  on,  and  the  boiler  stood  it;  on  the  16th  of 
November  it  also  sustained  40  pounds  steam  pressure  without  injury.  The  boiler 
was  provided  with  water-gauges ;  five  carefully  tested  pressure-gauges  near  it,  under 
bomb-proof  covers,  and  two  pressure-gauges  at  450  feet  distance,  connected  with  it  by 
a  pipe.  During  the  experiment  the  pressure  on  the  different  gauges  was  compared, 
and  found  to  agree  on  all  of  them. 

The  water-level  in  the  boiler  was  15  inches  above  the  level  of  the  tubes  seven 
minutes  before  the  explosion  took  place.  The  gauges  indicated  a  gradual  rising  of 
steam  pressure  until  it  reached  50  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  when  some  of  the 
braces  gave  way  with  a  loud  report,  and  at  a  pressure  of  53 i  pounds  the  boiler 
exploded  with  terrific  violence.  The  steam-drum  and  a  portion  of  the  top  of  the 
shell,  forming  a  mass  of  about  4  tons  in  weight,  were  hurled  high  into  the  air,  and 
fell  about  500  feet  from  the  inclosure.  The  boiler  was  literally  torn  into  shreds,  and 
only  a  mass  of  shattered  tubes  remained  on  the  spot  where  it  had  been.  The  ground, 
for  a  considerable  space  around,  was  saturated  with  the  water  it  had  contained.  This 
boiler  had  a  certificate  for  30  pounds  pressure.  At  the  experiment,  wood  alone  was 
used  as  fuel,  and  in  only  thirteen  minutes  the  pressure  rose  from  the  allowed  30 
pounds  to  53  i,  at  which  the  boiler  exploded. 

In  many  paper-mills  the  back  tender  is  at  the  same  time  fireman,  and  is  often 
absent  from  the  powder  magazine,  called  a  steam-boiler,  for  more  than  fifteen  minutes 
at  a  time.    It  is  a  wonder  that  explosions  do  not  more  frequently  occur. 


30 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Rag-boilers  directly  connected  with,  and  therefore  liable  to  the  same  pressure  as 
the  steam  generator,  should  be  built  on  the  same  principles.  If  they  are  not,  an  occa- 
sional neglect  of  the  fireman,  by  running  the  steam  up  too  high,  may  burst  the 
rotary,  while  the  generator  remains  unaffected. 

The  larger  the  diameter  of  a  steam-boiler  the  stronger  is  the  tension  on  any  part 
of  the  shell.  A  wrought-iron  pipe  of  2  inches  diameter  will  stand  a  very  heavy  pres- 
sure with  only  I  inch  iron ;  while  nobody  would  think  of  constructing  a  steam-boiler 
of  3  feet  diameter,  for  70  pounds  pressure,  of  less  than  /g  inch  sheets. 

The  tension  of  the  iron,  or  the  power  which  tries  to  tear  it  asunder,  increases  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  diameter  and  pressure ;  its  thickness  or  strength  of  resistance 
must  therefore  increase  likewise. 

This  rule,  which  is  generally  accepted  and  followed  for  the  construction  of  steam- 
boilers,  should  be  in  operation  for  our  6  and  7  feet  rotaries. 

F.  Redtenbacher  gives  the  following  rule  for  the  thickness  of  the  sheet  iron  used 

for  cylindric  steam-boilers  :  ^     ^   ^  .^.^ 

,  1.315+0.495^ 

a—  D 

363 — n 

In  this  formula  d  represents  the  inside  diameter  of  the  cylinder  in  centimetres  (1 
inch  is  equal  to  a  little  over  2?  centimetres)  ;  d  the  thickness  of  the  sheet  iron  used 
for  the  cylinder ;  n  the  number  of  atmospheres,  representing  the  highest  pressure  of 
steam  allowed  in  the  boiler.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  changes,  as  indicated 
by  the  barometer,  but  may  be  taken  at  15  pounds  on  the  square  inch.  It  must  also 
be  remembered  that  the  steam  j)ressure  gauges  in  the  United  States  only  show  the 
number  of  pounds  above  the  atmosphere ;  and  in  order  to  get  the  real  pressure  n,  one 
atmosphere  must  be  added  to  the  indicated  pressure. 

This  formula  has  been  calculated  for  different  pressures,  and  gives  for  1  to  8 
atmospheres : 

n  =     \  2  3  4  5  6  7  8 

—  =  0.0050     0.0064     0.0077     0.0092     0.0106     0.0120     0.0139  0.0149 
D 

Supposing,  for  instance,  that  the  highest  pressure  carried  by  the  steam-boiler  is 
75  pounds  on  our  gauge,  and  that  a  rotary  of  6  feet  diameter  is  in  uninterrupted 
communication  with  it,  the  real  pressure  n  is  75  +  15  =  90  pounds,  equal  to  6  times 
15  or  6  atmospheres,  d  the  diameter  is  6  feet  or  6x  12x22  =  1 80  centimetres. 
We  find  for  n  =  Q: 

-  =  0.0120  or  d  =  0.0120  X  D  =  0.0120  X  180  =  2.16  centimetres  =  |  inches. 

If  a  steam  generator  of  6  feet  diameter  for  75  pounds  steam  pressure  should  be 
built,  no  mechanic  would  dispute  the  propriety  of  using  inch  iron ;  but  for  a  rotary 
in  the  same  conditions,  ^%  inch,  and  even  \  inch,  is  often  considered  sufficient. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  above-stated  formula  gives  very  safe  boilers,  but 
that  is  what  is  wanted. 


BOILING. 


31 


It  is  also  true  that  the  steam-boiler,  being  exposed  to  the  wear  and  tear  by  fire, 
needs  heavier  iron  on  that  account  than  a  rotary. 

It  is  not  intended  to  recommend  the  use  of  iron  according  to  the  above-stated 
rules ;  but  they  may  serve  as  a  guide,  and  show  that  it  will  not  do  to  build  rotaries  of 
different  diameters  with  sheets  of  iron  of  the  same  thickness.  It  must  also  be  con- 
sidered that  the  shell  of  a  rag-boiler,  being  by  turns  wet,  dry,  hot,  and  cold,  is  very 
liable  to  be  weakened  by  rust  and  expansion  and  contraction. 

The  shell  of  a  6  feet  rotary,  carrying  75  pounds  of  pressure,  should  be  made  of 
best  \  inch  iron,  double  riveted,  and  j'g  inch  should  be  added  to  the  thickness  for 
every  foot  increase  of  the  diameter. 

We  admit  that  a  shell  of  |  inch  iron,  as  recommended  by  many  machinists,  is 
sufficient  so  long  as  it  retains  its  full  strength.  But  if,  in  the  course  of  time,  the 
boiler  is  weakened  by  wear  and  tear,  and  the  same  high  pressure  is  used,  an  explo- 
sion will  be  natural. 

The  rotaries  should  therefore  be  constructed  stronger,  or  not  exposed  to  as  high 
a  pressure  as  they  are  in  most  mills. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  many  experienced  paper-makers,  it  is  better  to  boil 
•  rags  slowly,  at  a  moderate  temperature,  than  to  force  the  operation  with  high 
pressure. 

A  pressure  of  30  pounds  would  be  sufficient  for  any  kind  of  rags ;  and  if  we  can 
only  succeed  in  keeping  the  steam  in  the  rotary  down  to  that  point,  the  danger  of 
explosion  will  be  reduced  so  as  hardly  to  deserve  any  consideration. 

In  some  New  England  mills  an  apparatus  is  used  for  this  j)urpose  which  seems 
to  answer  all  reasonable  expectations.  It  is  manufactured  by  the  Union  Water 
Meter  Company,  Worcester,  Mass.,  as  represented  by  Fig. 
14.  A  branch  of  the  steam-pipe  sup^^lying  the  rotary 
leads  to  a  large  valve  carrying  lever  and  weight,  like  a 
safety-valve.  This  lever  is  connected  by  a  rod  with  the 
shaft  of  a  throttle-valve,  admitting  dv  closing  off"  the 
steam.  If  the  weight  is  set  so  that  the  safety-valve  is 
raised  up  at  30  pounds  pressure,  the  lever  will  go  up 
likewise  and,  tlirough  the  connecting  rod,  close  the 
steam-valve.  If  the  pressure  falls  below  30  pounds,  the 
steam-valve  opens  again,  and  thus  keeps  it  at  the  desired 
point. 

The  valve  is  not  constructed  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
A  rubber  cylinder  or  a  section  of  rubber  hose  a  a,  as 
shown  by  a  cut  in  Fig.  15,  is  fastened  with  its  lower  edge  to  the  iron 
frame,  and  the  upper  edge  carrying  the  valve  b  is  bent  in  so  that  the 
valve  may  move  freely  up  or  down.  The  hollow  column,  through 
which  the  steam  descends  into  the  chamber  formed  by  the  rubber  cyl- 
inder and  the  valve,  is  and  should  always  be  filled  with  condensed  steam  or  water, 


32 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


to  prevent  the  steam  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  rubber.  A  gauge  attached 
to  the  column  shows  the  pressure. 

XI.  Consti'uction. — The  rotary  derives  its  name  from  being  suspended  on  its  ends 
in  journals,  wherein  it  revolves.  These  journals  form  part  of  the  heavy  castings, — 
the  ends  of  boiler-heads  riveted  to  a  cylindric  shell,  and  are  of  about  12  inches  diam- 
eter and  12  inches  length  in  their  bearings. 

Some  boilers  are  built  with  wrought-iron  heads,  and  journals  with  cast-iron 
flanges  of  about  3  feet  diameter  are  riveted  to  them.  The  whole  weight  of 
boiler  and  contents,  amounting  to  10  and  often  20  or  more  tons,  is  sustained  by 
these  flanges  and  rivets.  The  rivet-holes  necessarily  weaken  the  castings ;  and  the 
author  has  seen  the  flanges  of  such  boilers  broken  right  through  them  in  a  circle, 
showing  that  the  weight  and  wear  and  tear  of  the  motion  was  more  than  they  could 
stand. 

A  rag-boiler,  which  w^as  ordered  by  the  author,  and  built  by  Pusey,  Jones  & 
Co.,  Wilmington,  Del.,  is  represented  by  a  vertical  section  through  a-a  of  Fig.  17,  in 
Fig.  16,  and  by  an  elevation  showing  the  driving  end  in  Fig.  17,  at  about      of  the 

Pig.  10.  -  Fig.  17. 


real  size,  or  -^^  inch  per  foot.  By  forming  the  heads  a  a  in  the  manner  shown  in 
Fig.  16,  of  one  solid  casting,  arched  and  smooth  inside,  and  strengthened  by  ribs  out- 
side, the  weight  is  divided  on  a  large  circumference  and  many  rivets. 

A  6  feet  shell  should  be  riveted  on  heads  of  not  less  than  5  feet  diameterj  like 
A  A ;  but  if  false  heads  and  syphon  pipes  are  used  inside,  the  shell  must  be  cylindrical 
to  the  ends. 

Castings,  even  if  made  with  the  greatest  care  and  of  the  best  iron,  are  liable  to 
be  faulty,  although  the  defects  may  be  invisible. 

Every  rotary  should  be  tested  with  the  same  hydrostatic  pressure  as  the  steam- 
boiler  with  which  it  is  to  be  connected.  We  have  seen  several  apparently  sound 
heads  cracked  when  subjected  to  it. 

One  of  the  journals  has  an  additional  length  of  about  6  inches,  carrying  the  cog- 
wheel B  which  turns  the  boiler. 


BOILING. 


33 


The  journals  of  most  rotaries  are  each  one  separately  turned,  and  afterwards 
riveted  to  the  shell.  It  is  impossible  to  fasten  them  so  that  they  will  be  perfectly  in 
line ;  boxes  turning  on  pivots,  which  accommodate  themselves  to  the  journals,  are 
therefore  generally  used.  The  fault  is  not  hereby  corrected,  but  only  hidden,  and 
the  friction,  wear  and  tear,  and  probability  of  breaks  are  greater  than  if  the  journals 
were  in  line. 

The  only  way  to  make  a  rotary  run  true  is  to  rivet  the  heads  in  rough,  to  put 
the  whole  boiler  into  a  large  lathe  by  means  of  a  crane,  and  to  turn  the  journals 
there.  If  the  necessary  machinery  is  provided,  this  is  fully  as  cheap  as  the  old  way. 
The  boiler  represented  by  Figs.  16  and  17  was  thus  bodily  turned. 

The  movement  of  the  rotary  causes  the  rags  to  rub  against  one  another  and 
against  the  boiler,  creating  a  loss  and  weakening  the  fibres. 

A  very  slow  motion,  suificient  to  mix  the  rags  with  the  liquor,  and  reducing  the 
loss  by  friction  to  a  minimum  is  therefore  desirable.  One  revolution  in  five  to  ten 
minutes  is  sufficient. 

In  most  cases  many  cog-wheels  would  be  required  to  reduce  the  speed  so  low, 
but  it  can  be  easily  and  satisfactorily  done  by  a  worm-wheel.  Such  a  wheel  b,  of 
about  the  same  diameter  as  the  shell,  with  tight  and  loose  pulleys  d  d  on  the  worm- 
shaft,  answers  well,  and  gives  the  additional  advantage  that  the  boiler  stops  easily 
in  any  position,  held  by  the  worm  c,  as  soon  as  the  belt  is  shifted  on  the  loose  pulley. 
f  The  steam-pipes,  as  far  as  they  pass  through  the  journals,  should  consist  of  cast- 

ings turned  in  a  lathe,  and  fastened  in  some  way  to  the  boiler-frame,  so  that  they 
cannot  be  carried  round  by  the  friction.  A  square  nut,  which  is  cast  with  the  pipe  r, 
is  thus  held  in  its  place  by  the  bracket  e,  which  also  supports  it  against  the  pressure 
inside  of  the  boiler. 

Stuffing-boxes  prevent  the  escape  of  steam  or  liquor  between  the  journals  and 
pipes. 

To  blow  off"  steam  the  rotary  must  be  stopped,  and  a  2:»ipe  leading  out  of  the 
building  attached  to  the  stop-valve  g,  the  inlet  to  which  is  guarded  by  the  perforated 
sheet-iron  h. 

A  portion  of  the  heat  which  thus  escapes  can  be  saved  by  conducting  the  steam 
through  pipes  surrounded  by  cold  water,  Avhich  is  thereby  heated,  and  may  be  used 
for  many  purposes. 

The  iron  sheets  should  overlap  each  other  like  shingles  on  a  roof,  descending 
towards  the  manholes,  so  that  the  rags  cannot  find  any  corners  wherein  to  lodge 
while  the  boiler  is  emptied. 

The  manholes  i  are  ellipse-shaped,  of  wrought-iron,  not  too  heavy,  and  fit 
against  the  shell  from  the  inside,  so  that  the  increasing  steam-pressure  will  close  them 
tighter  all  the  time. 

Many  materials  are  used  for  packing  them,  but  the  most  convenient  are  braided 
hemp  rings  saturated  with  clay,  as  ropes  and  clay  are  always  on  hand  in  paper-mills. 
The  boiler  must  be  well  balanced  to  run  easy,  a  sham  manhead  or  casting  i', 

5 


34 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPFE  FR03I  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


equal  to  the  overweight  of  the  real  one,  is  therefore  frequently  fastened  opposite.  If 
turned  in  the  lathe  the  rotary  can  be  balanced  better  than  in  any  other  way. 

XII.  Location  of  the  Rotary  and  Disposition  of  the  Boiled  Rags. — In  a  well- 
arranged  mill  the  rag-boiler,  as  has  been  said  before,  is  always  situated  so  that  the 
top  nearly  reaches  the  floor  of  the  duster  or  rag-room,  and  high  enough  to  allow  it  to 
empty  easily  on  the  drainer-bottom  below.  The  rags  are  from  there  loaded  into 
trucks  and  hoisted  up  to  the  engine-room.  If  the  boiler-room  floor  can  be  put  on  a 
level  with  that  of  the  engine  all  the  hoisting  is  saved.  To  accomplish  this  a  high 
foundation  is  often  required.  Good-sized  timber,  of  not  less  than  10  by  12  or  12  by 
12  inches  may  be  used  for  it,  but  in  some  cases  stone  or  iron  will  be  found  cheaper, 
or  preferred  because  they  are  fire-proof. 

To  provide  against  accidents,  such  as  the  breaking  of  a  journal,  it  is  prudent  to 
let  an  ofiset  of  the  foundation  or  pieces  of  timber  k  k  extend  under  and  close  to  each 
end  of  the  boiler,  so  that  it  cannot  fall  to  the  ground. 

The  rags  must  be  drained  while  hot,  because  some  of  the  substances  dissolved  in 
hot  water  are  insoluble  in  cold  water,  and  "would,  if  suddenly  cooled  off",  deposit  again 
on  the  rags.  The  more  perfectly  the  liquor  is  drained  off  before  the  rags  are  taken 
to  the  washing-engine,  the  better.  If  not  too  expensive  it  would  be  advisable  to 
wash  them  in  hot  water. 

There  is  no  better  evidence  of  the  perfection  with  which  this  process  of  boiling 
extracts  the  glutinous  and  other  substances  from  the  rags  than  the  fact  that  Messrs. 
Delaire  and  Bocquet  in  France  have  lately  succeeded  in  sizing  paper,  with  an  extract 
made  from  the  liquor  which  escapes  from  the  rag-boiler.    The  process  is  patented. 

Rag-boilers  should  be  situated  in  buildings  or  rooms  strictly  separated  from  the 
other  parts  of  the  mill  where  labor  has  to  be  performed,  because  the  rags  are,  and 
ought  to  be,  boiling  hot  when  emptied,  and  the  steam  coming  from  them  fills  every 
dejjartment  within  its  reach.  Especially  in  cold  weather  this  is  very  disagreeable, 
and  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  employees. 

12.  Tubs  preferred  to  Rotaries. — Several  manufacturers  of  fine  writing-pajier  have 
lately  discontinued  the  use  of  rotaries,  and  do  their  boihng  now  in  wooden  tubs  with 
a  very  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda.  They  use  none  but  the  best  qualities  of  white 
rags,  and  think  that  they  not  only  sufier  a  greater  loss  of  fibres  from  rotation,  but 
also  that  scales  and  rust  from  the  iron  of  the  boilers  find  their  way  into  the  pulp. 

The  weaker  treatment  in  tubs  is  quite  sufiicient  for  such  material,  and  the  change 
may  be  a  very  judicious  one. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  35 


SECTION  III. 
(a)  Washing,  (b)  Bleaching,  (c)  Draining,  {d)  Bleaching  with  Gas. 

(a)  Washing. 

13.  The  Engine. — The  invention  of  the  engine  or  Hollander  has  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  the  present  development  of  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  though  over  one 
hundred  years  have  passed  away  since  its  introduction,  it  is  yet  very  imperfectly 
understood  and  constructed. 

The  rags  are  washed  and  beaten  into  pulp  for  the  lower  grades,  such  as  wrap- 
ping paper,  in  one  engine,  but  this  section  treats  only  of  the  operations  by  which  "  half 
stuff"  is  made. 

If  half  stuff  or  bleached  pulp  is  to  be  made,  the  washing  and  beating  have  to  be 
done  in  different  engines,  and  each  one  can  be  constructed  so  as  to  perform  best  the 
work  for  which  it  is  intended. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  engine  in  this  section,  its  character  as  a  washer  must  be 
kept  in  view. 

This  well-known  apj)aratus,  a  theoretical  section  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  18, 
may  be  defined  as  a  shallow,  oblong  vessel,  with  circular  ends  divided  lengthway  by 


Fig.  18. 


a  partition  x,  which  extends  as  far  as  the  rectangular  part  of  the  body.  A  shaft  a, 
bearing  a  roll  b,  which  fits  into  one  of  the  two  partitions,  revolves  across  the  middle 
of  this  vat.  A  number  of  steel  knives  c  are  fastened  parallel  with  the  shaft  on  the 
surface  of  this  roll,  and  another  set  d  is  placed  right  under  it  on  the  bottom  of  the 
tub,  so  that  the  edges  of  both  face  and  touch  each  other. 

Between  these  two  sets  of  knives,  the  first  one  c  revolving,  and  the  latter  one  d 
stationary,  the  rags  must  pass,  and  are  cut,  torn,  or  only  rubbed,  as  may  be  desired. 

A  stream  of  pure  water  flows  into  the  engine,  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  pulp 
through  the  action  of  the  roll,  and  the  dirty  water  is  constantly  washed  out  by  a 


36 


MANUFACTURE  OF  FAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


mechanical  contrivance,  which  will  be  described  hereafter.  The  distance  between  the 
knives  can  be  regulated  by  lifting  or  lowering  the  roll-shaft  a  with  the  lighter. 

14.  Furnishing  and  Washing. — The  engineer  in  charge  opens  the  water-faucet, 
and,  as  soon  as  the  vat  is  partly  filled,  throws  the  boiled  rags  into  it,  behind  the  roll, 
so  that  the  revolving  knives  c  can  take  hold  of  them.  The  assistant  or  helper  must 
have  a  full  supply  of  rags  ready  on  trucks,  as  no  mill  can  afford  to  waste  the  time  of 
the  washers  or  beaters. 

To  get  the  full  strength  of  the  raw  material,  it  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  length 
of  the  fibres.  If  chopped  into  short  pieces  a  part  of  them  must  invariably  be  lost 
with  the  wash- water.  The  roll  should  therefore  never  be  lowered  any  further  during 
the  wash-process  than  is  necessary  to  turn  and  draw  out  the  rags. 

In  furnishing  the  engine  it  is  often  found  that  some  rags  sink  to  the  bottom, 
while  others  float  on  top.  The  first  are  evidently  heavier  and  the  latter  lighter  than 
water.  Though  both  may  be  composed  of  the  same  kind  of  fibre,  it  is  in  one  case 
woven  into  a  compact  mass  of  a  greater'  specific  weight  than  water,  and  in  the  other 
one  it  is  spread  out  so  that  a  pound  of  it  occupies  more  room  than  a  pound  of  water. 

Heavy  rags  must  be  made  to  occupy  more  room  by  being  drawn  out  and  torn 
into  shreds ;  light  ones  must  be  bruised,  soaked  in  water,  and  j)ressed  together  to  gain 
in  weight. 

These  two  different  results  are,  strange  to  say,  obtained  by  the  same  action,  and 
just  the  one  which,  according  to  our  previous  exj)lanation,  is  to  be  strictly  avoided. 

The  engineer  lowers  the  roll  so  that  it  nearly  touches  the  plate,  and  then  pushes 
the  heavy  or  light  rags  under  it  with  the  paddle.  A  few  turns  round  the  engine  are 
usually  sufficient  to  crush  the  rags  into  obedience,  so  that  they  will  neither  rise  to 
the  surface  nor  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  roll,  of  course,  must  be  raised  again  imme- 
diately, and  kept  so  until  the  wash-process  is  finished. 

This  is  not  the  case  until  the  water  runs  jjerfectly  clean  from  the  washers.  Then, 
and  not  before,  it  is  time  to  lower  the  roll,  so  that  the  rags  may  be  drawn  out  into 
their  fibres,  but  not  cut. 

It  is  our  aim  here,  and  all  through  the  process  of  paper-making,  to  obtain  the 
original  fibre  as  little  damaged  as  possible ;  the  washing  engine,  which  plays  an  im- 
portant part,  should  therefore  not  be  trusted  to  any  but  men  of  judgment  and  expe- 
rience.   The  damages  and  losses  suffered  here  cannot  be  rejiaired  or  recovered. 

The  efficiency  of  the  engine  depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  velocity  with 
which  its  contents  circulate.  If  the  rags  jDass  twice  between  the  knives  of  one 
engine,  while  they  go  only  once  through  those  of  another,  the  former  does  nearly 
twice  as  much  work  as  the  latter  in  the  same  time. 

The  rags  cannot  be  well  washed  unless  the  fresh  water,  which  is  constantly 
pouring  in,  becomes  speedily  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  pulp. 

15.  Movement  of  the  Pulp. — This  mixture  will  be  the  more  perfect,  the  oftener  the 
pulp  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  roll  within  a  given  time. 

If  the  whole  mass  moves  lazily,  the  heavy  portions  settle  to  the  bottoni,  and  lodge 


WASHmG,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  37 

in  corners,  but  a  lively  current  gives  tliem  an  impetus,  wliicli  overcomes  their  weight 
and  carries  tliem  along. 

Nearly  every  millwright  and  machinist  has  a  plan  and  theory  of  his  own,  by 
which  this  object  is  to  be  accomplished. 

Many  years  ago  the  mid  fellow  was  frequently  placed  out  of  centre,  on  the  theory 
that  the  pulp  would  stand  higher  in  the  narrower  part,  and  thereby  produce  a  current 
down  to  the  pulp  in  the  wider  partition. 

The  present  construction  of  our  engines  disproves  this,  and  it  is  only  mentioned 
because  it  was  taught  by  a  justly  celebrated  authority  in  mechanical  engineering. 

The  movement  of  any  mass  consumes  power,  and  the  only  power  in  an  engine 
is  exercised  through  the  roll,  which  consequently  must  be  the  cause  of  circulation. 

The  action  of  the  roll,  by  taking  hold  of  the  rags,  dragging  them  up  to  the  back- 
fall E,  whence  they  tumble  down  again,  starts  the  movement.  But,  by  and  by,  the 
rags  are  macerated  into  thin  pulp,  in  which  there  is  not  solid  substance  enough  to  be 
pulled  by  the  knives,  and  then  the  roll  acts  as  a  pump  or  water-lifter. 

The  machines  used  by  the  Egyptians,  thousands  of  years  ago,  to  raise  water  for 
irrigation,  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  low-breast  water-wheels,  or  would  on  a 
small  scale  resemble  the  rolls  of  our  engines.  Their  action  is  that  of  a  water-wheel 
consuming  instead  of  producing  power,  creating  a  waterfall  instead  of  using  it. 

The  circulation  is  jiroj^ortionate  to  the  quantity  of  pulp,  which  is  transferred  or 
raised  by  the  roll  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  part  of  the  saddle-shaped  breast  or 
backfall  e  in  a  given  time. 

The  quantity  of  pulp  which  can  be  forwarded  depends,  first  of  all,  on  the  size  of 
the  buckets  formed  by  the  flybars  c.  These  latter  should  be  of  strong  I  to  |  inch 
iron  plate,  edged  with  steel  as  far  as  they  are  to  be  worn  down ;  they  should  stand 
alone,  and  project  as  far  as  possible  from  the  body  of  the  roll. 

By  crowding  too  many  flybars  on  the  roll,  the  sjiace  between  them,  and  with  it 
the  lifting  capacity,  is  decreased,  and  what  might  be  gained  by  the  increased  number 
of  cuts  is  lost  in  circulation.  The  distance  between  their  outside  edges  should  not  be 
less  than  2|  inches — better  more.  The  distance  between  the  flybars  being  fixed,  the 
diameter  of  the  roll  b  determines  their  number. 

To  prevent  the  buckets  from  losing  their  contents  before  they  have  reached  the 
point  of  discharge,  the  backfall,  like  the  drain  of  a  water-wheel,  must  be  shaped  so 
that  the  edges  of  the  flybars  or  buckets  pass  it  close  enough  not  to  leave  room  for  the 
escape  of  pulp.  Sometimes  this  is  done  so  well  that  the  pulp  cannot  even  leave  the 
flybars  where  it  ought  to,  and  is  carried  round  by  them.  This  will  be  found  on 
examination  to  be  the  case  with  many  poorly-turning  engines. 

It  is  evident  that  the  pulp  which  has  not  been  discharged  before  the  flybars 
reach  the  horizontal  position  (usually  at  the  height  of  the  centre  of  the  roll)  must  be 
,  carried  farther,  and  return  to  the  point  whence  it  started  from.    The  usual  way  to 
avoid  this  is  by  leaving  a  wide  space  of  2  to  3  inches  between  the  flybars  and  the 
backfall  at  the  upper  end  for  the  reception  of  the  pulp.    We  have  also  seen  the 


38 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


flybars  put  into  the  roll,  so  that  they  do  not  point  towards  the  centre,  and  consequently 
reach  the  horizontal  jjosition  only  several  inches  above  the  centre  line,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  19.  The  flybars  in  this  drawing  are  put  more  out  of  centre  than  is  practi- 
cally done,  in  order  to  show  the  jirinciple.  The  edges  may,  however,  in  all  cases  be 
moved  backwards  from  the  central  position  about  {  to  h  inch. 
I'w-  1^-  16.  Rolls. — The  top  of  the  backfall  is,  if  built  correctly, 

kept  considerably  below  the  centre  line.  But  why  do  we  not 
see  any  engines  with  large  rolls, — so  large  that  the  whole  shaft 
is  above  the  engine  sides,  and  its  centre  necessarily  far  above 
the  backfall  ? 

There  cannot  be  any  serious  objection  while  everything 
speaks  in  their  favor.  Such  large  rolls  will  carry  more  knives, 
forming  large  buckets ;  they  can  with  less  revolutions  make  as 
many  cuts ;  they  are  heavy  and  therefore  preferable ;  and  last, 
but  not  least,  the  sides  of  the  engines  need  not  be  cut,  and  as  the  shaft  rests  above 
the  level  of  the  pulp,  none  of  it  can  escape  through  the  holes. 

If  the  common  small-sized  rolls  are  chosen,  the  backfall  is  to  be  fitted  close  at 
the  bottom  near  the  plate,  widening  out  to  the  top.  It  must  be  kept  low  enough  to 
remain  several  inches  beneath  the  centre  of  the  roll. 

A  well-built  engine  does  not  require  more  than  |  to  |  inch  play  between  the 
roll  and  the  engine  sides,  and  even  that  space  soon  fills  up  with  rags,  if  not  kept  clean 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  wood  or  metal  fastened  to  the  heads  of  the  roll. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  rags  should  not  find  any  place  where  they  can 
lodge,  escape  the  washing  and  beating  process,  and  become  mixed  with  the  prepared 
pulp  while  emptying.  The  little  strips  just  spoken  of,  trifling  as  they  seem,  should 
not  be  neglected,  as  they  will,  if  judiciously  put  on,  keep  the  sides  of  the  roll  clean. 

No  roll,  if  ever  so  heavy,  can  descend  any  lower  than  the  lighter  which  carries 
it  will  permit,  but  nothing  besides  its  own  weight  j^revents  it  from  jumjoing  up.  If 
a  light  roll  is  called  on  to  forward  or  grind  a  thick  bundle  of  rags  which  it  cannot 
master,  it  will  either  refuse  to  work  or  jump  out  of  its  place,  and  perhaps  break  some- 
thing, while  a  heavy  one  would  give  no  difiiculty  whatever.  Large,  heavy  rolls 
are  therefore  preferable  to  light  ones. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  iron  should  not  in  engine-rolls,  as  well  as  in  other  ma- 
chinery, take  the  place  of  wood.  The  difficulty  of  finding  trees  large  enough  to  furnish 
them  enforces  the  substitution  of  iron,  which  is  besides  less  perishable  and  heavier. 

17.  Shaft. — The  shaft  must  be  strong  and  stiff,  so  that  it  can  neither  break, 
spring,  nor  bend ;  and  it  is  simply  a  question  of  cost  if  wrought  or  cast  iron  is  to  be 
chosen,  provided  that  these  conditions  are  complied  with.  The  shafts  of  our  600  to 
800  pound  engines  are  usually  of  cast  iron,  6  to  7  inches  diameter,  and  often  pre- 
ferred to  wrought-iron  ones,  because  they  are  more  rigidly  stiff"  and  much  cheaper. 
The  latter  have,  however,  a  tenacity,  nearly  excluding  the  possibility  of  breaking, 
which  castings,  if  ever  so  well  made,  always  admit  of. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  39 


18.  Backfall  and  Tub. — The  backfall  is  mostly  made  of  wood,  and  soon  worn  out 
of  shape  if  not  covered  with  cast-iron  plates  or  heavy  sheet  copper. 

The  vat  is  constructed  either  of  wood,  iron,  or  stone.  If  of  wood,  it  should  be  of 
a  tough-grained  kind,  which  will  resist  the  influence  of  water  and  chemicals  for  a 
long  time.  3  or  4  inch  plank,  standing  upright,  the  circular  parts  surrounded  by 
iron  hoojDS,  compose  the  sides ;  the  bottom  is  3  to  4  inches  and  the  midfellow  2  to  3 
inches  thick.  The  fine  paper  of  the  New  England  States  is  nearly  all  made  in 
wooden  engines,  with  or  without  copper  covering.  Cast  iron  is  more  substantial  than 
wood,  and  cheaper  than  wood  covered  with  copper,  and  should  be  used  at  least  for 
the  sides  of  engines,  excepting  only  those  in  which  the  finest  grades  of  paper  are 
made,  which  may  be  damaged  by  traces  of  rust. 

Many  engines  are  now  built  entirely  of  iron ;  and  those  of  one  of  the  largest  new 
mills  in  the  United  States,  carrying  600  to  800  pounds,  consist  of  one  solid  casting, 
including  sides,  bottom,  and  backfall. 

If,  however,  any  change  in  location  should  necessitate  a  change  in  the  engines — 
for  instance,  only  a  new  outlet  valve — it  could  not  be  made  without  difficulty. 

Whatever  material  may  be  used,  the  engine  must  be  built  so  as  to  leave  no  holes 
or  corners  for  the  pulj)  to  lodge  in.  The  corners  formed  by  the  bottom  and  sides 
must  be  filled  or  rounded  up. 

Stone  tubs  can  only  be  procured  of  small  size,  and  are  used  exclusively  for 
bleaching.    The  nature  and  size  of  the  stone  governs  their  construction. 

19.  Sand  Traps. — Every  engine  should  be  provided  with  sand  traps  f,  or  exca- 
vations in  the  bottom,  covered  with  perforated  cast-iron  or  brass  plates,  wherein  heavy 
impurities,  like  nails,  buttons,  stones,  metals  of  all  kinds,  and  sand  deposit  them- 
selves. The  openings  in  the  plates  may  be  as  numerous  and  as  large  as  the  strength 
of  the  metal  will  admit  of ;  the  pulp  will  go  through  anyhow,  and  can  only  be  dis- 
placed by  heavier  matters.  If  the  ojDcnings  are  too  small,  they  will  keep  the  larger 
pieces  of  metal  out.  The  efficiency  of  the  sand  traps  is  proportionate  to  their  surface. 
They  must  be  located  so  that  the  water,  with  which  the  pulp  is  washed  down  when 
an  engine  is  emptying,  cannot  reach  them,  stir  up  the  impurities  inside,  and  carry 
part  of  them  off  with  the  pulj).  This  would  be  the  case  everywhere  near  the  dis- 
charge-valve, or  between  it  and  the  point  where  the  fresh  water  comes  in.  The  only 
safe  place  seems  to  be  the  ascent  to  the  roll,  and  on  it  we  find  it  usually  located. 

The  lowest  point  of  the  cavity  f,  covered  by  the  sand  trap,  is  usually  provided 
with  a  valve,  through  which  it  can  be  cleaned  out.  Sometimes,  however,  this  valve 
is  placed,  for  greater  convenience,  in  an  upright  pipe  alongside  of  the  engine,  and 
connected  by  another  pipe  with  the  lowest  point  of  f.  It  can  then  be  opened  and 
the  contents  of  f  at  any  time  drawn  off,  by  means  of  a  rod  and  handle,  while  the 
engine  is  running.  But,  as  this  valve  cannot  be  seen,  there  is  danger  that,  with  the 
impurities,  some  pulp  may  escape,  through  carelessness  in  opening  it  too  often  and 
not  closing  it  perfectly  after  use.  It  is,  therefore,  questionable  if  the  greater  conveni- 
ence is  not  offset  by  the  danger  of  loss. 


40  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

* 

A  washing  engine,  which  is  a  fair  example  of  those  most  seen  in  the  paj)er-mills 
of  this  country,  is  shown  by  a  plan  and  front  view,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  \  inch  per  foot, 
in  Figs.  20  and  21.  It  has  iron  sides,  iron  roll,  wooden  bottom,  and  carries  about 
500  pounds. 

20.  Lighters. — The  roll  shaft  rests  in  two  bearings,  outside  of  the  tub ;  one  of 
them  next  to  the  roll,  or,  as  it  is  called,  "  on  the  front  side,"  is  carried  by  the  lighter  a. 


Fig.  20. 


'  J  e  9  12"        V  2'  '  4^  ^  b  '  h'  '  10' 

Fig.  21. 


This  lighter  (a  horizontal  lever)  is  fastened  by  a  jDin  at  one  end,  and  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  by  means  of  an  upright  screw  and  hand-wheel  b  at  the  other  end,  the 
bearing  and  shaft  following  these  motions.  The  back  end  of  the  shaft  rests  on  a  sep- 
arate stand  c,  at  some  distance,  leaving  room  for  pulleys  between  it  and  the  back 
side. 

Whenever  the  shaft  is  raised  or  lowered  by  the  lighter,  it  occupies  a  more  or  less 
inclined  position,  or,  to  speak  correctly,  makes  a  different  angle  with  the  horizontal 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  41 


line.  If  the  two  bearings  or  shells  do  not  follow  these  motions,  the  shaft  will  only 
lay  in  them  in  one  position,  while  in  all  others  it  will  rest  on  a  corner  of  the  box 
only.  Instead  of  being  immovable,  the  bearings  should  turn  on  pivots,  which  permit 
of  their  changing  positions  with  the  journals. 

It  is  evident  that  the  rags  can  only  be  treated  alike  by  the  roll,  so  long  as  the 
distance  between  the  revolving  and  stationary  knives  is  everywhere  the  same.  When 
the  lighter  is  raised  or  lowered,  it  is  done  with  the  intention  of  increasing  or  reducing 
that  distance  to  a  certain  opening ;  but  how  can  this  be  done  if  the  two  sets  of  knives 
are  not  parallel  ? 

The  bed-plates  are  so  set  that  they  are  touched  all  across  by  the  fly-bars,  when 
in  contact  with  them  ;  but  this  position  is  seldom  allowed  while  working.  The  lighter 
is  always  more  or  less  raised,  the  shaft  and  fly-bars  forming  an  angle  with  the  bed- 
knives.  If  the  length  of  the  roll  is  about  one-third  of  that  of  the  shaft  between  the 
two  bearings,  and  the  front  corners  of  the  fly-bars  are  raised  to  about  |  inch  above 
the  plates,  the  back  corners  can  only  be  §  or  i  inch  off" ;  or  there  is  always  one-third 
difierence  between  the  openings  at  the  two  ends. 

An  engineer  would  laugh  if  he  were  told  that  it  did  not  make  any  difierence  if 
the  fly-bars  were  raised  {  or  |  inch ;  and  yet  we  allow  the  same  pulp  to  be  subjected 
to  such  different  treatment  at  all  times  in  our  engines. 

As  the  plates  are  wearing  down,  the  roll  follows  them,  and,  its  shaft  being  sta- 
tionary at  the  back  end,  it  will  descend  lower  at  the  front  side  than  near  the  mid- 
fellow.  Every  paper-maker  knows  that  the  plates,  on  being  removed,  are  always 
worn  most  near  the  outside  of  the  tub.  If  they  are,  for  example,  reduced  |  inch  at 
the  front  side,  they  will  only  be  \  inch  below  their  original  height  at  the  back  end. 

As  the  plates  can  be  worn  down  by  the  friction  of  the  rags  only,  we  are  forced 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  rags  have  been  subjected  to  the  strongest  action  where  most 
of  the  steel  has  disappeared,  that  is,  on  the  front  side. 

The  fibres  will  be  more  of  one  length  if  treated  uniformly ;  and  the  more  they 
are  so,  the  fewer  of  them  will  be  wasted. 

The  shaft  and  tub  must  preserve  their  original  correct  position  towards  each 
other,  by  being  fastened  immutably  to  one  and  the  same  foundation.  The  most  per- 
fect way  to  assure  this  is  by  attaching  the  back  side  bearing  to  the  tub  itself.  If  it 
rests  on  a  separate  stand,  the  relative  positions  between  it  and  the  engine  may  be 
changed  by  a  difierence  in  the  settlement  of  the  foundation,  or  by  a  lateral  displace- 
ment of  either.  But,  if  an  immovable  bearing  is  attached  to  the  engine,  the  shaft 
will  be  much  shorter,  and  the  angle  formed  by  the  fly-bars  and  plates  considerably 
increased. 

We  have  to  choose  between  the  two  evils,  of  a  separate  stand,  with  the  danger  of 
relative  dislocation,  and  an  attached  bearing  with  short  shaft,  unless  a  plan  is 
adopted  by  which  both  can  be  avoided. 

It  can  be  done  by  resting  the  shaft  on  two  lighters,  both  moving  up  and  down 
together.    The  front  side  lighter  is,  as  usual,  lowered  and  raised  by  a  screw,  which 

6 


42 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


connects,  by  bevel-wheels  and  a  horizontal  shaft  across  the  engine  (either  above  or 
below),  with  the  screw  of  the  back  side  lighter. 

If  the  connecting-shaft  is  above  the  engine,  it  must  be  carried  on  high  stands, 
so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way ;  but  if  it  is  located  below,  it  may  lay  close  to  the  bottom, 
not  obstructing  anything.    The  latter  plan  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest. 

It  is  true  that  these  connections  would  have  to  be  strong  and  heavy  for  our 
large  engines,  and  would  cause  additional  outlay  ;  but  the  larger  the  engine  is,  the 
more  unevenly,  with  tlie  present  construction,  will  it  cut. 

The  bed-plate  will  wear  down  with  more  uniformity  than  in  ordinary  engines  if 
the  roll-shaft  is  periodically  lowered  at  the  back  end,  and  thus,  in  a  manner,  reset. 
This  can  be  done  with  a  set-screw  under  the  bearing  of  the  shaft,  on  the  back  side 


Fig.  22. 


stand.  It  can  be  found  by  experience  how  much  the  plates  wear  down  in  a  given 
time,  and  then  the  back  side  bearing  is,  at  fixed  times,  lowered  as  much. 

In  a  mill  where  all  the  engine-shafts  are  supplied  with  such  movable  bearings, 
it  has  been  found  that  ^'g  inch  is  worked  off  from  the  height  of  the  bed-plates  every 
two  weeks.  The  foreman  therefore  low^ers  the  set-screws  every  two  weeks,  and  with 
them  the  bearings,  by  one  turn  or  inch,  and  permits  of  the  rolls  touching  the  plates 
and  grinding  all  along  their  surfaces,  as  they  did  when  the  plates  were  new. 

This  is  an  improvement  on  the  immovable  bearing,  but  requires  attention,  and 
corrects  the  faults  only  periodically ;  while  an  arrangement  by  which  both  ends  of 
the  shaft  are  raised  and  lowered  together,  keeps  it  all  the  time  in  correct  position. 

We  have  seen  at  Messrs.  Cheney  &  Hudson's  bank-note  paper-mill,  near  North 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  43 


Manchester,  Connecticut,  a  washing  engine  for  a  thousand  pounds  of  pulp,  the  con- 
struction of  which  deserves  to  be  more  widely  known.  A  horizontal  plan  of  it  is 
represented  by  Fig.  22,  on  opposite  page. 

The  centre  of  the  engine  is  a  hollow  place  inclosed  by  two  midfellows,  about  18 
to  20  inches  apart,  with  ends  connected  by  circles. 

Instead  of  the  usual  stand  on  the  back  side,  this  engine  has  a  lighter  a  in  the 
hollow  centre,  which  is  identical  wdth  the  one  on  the  front  side.  A  shaft  b  across 
the  front  half  of  the  engine,  resting  on  stand  c,  lifts  both  lighters  at  once  by  means 
of  eccentrics.  The  eccentric  shaft  itself  is  turned  by  a  worm-wheel  d,  and  the  worm- 
shaft  by  a  crank  or  hand- wheel  e. 

The  pulley  r  is  placed  between  the  front  side  lighter  and  the  engine.  The  two 
washers  g  empty  into  the  hollow  centre,  and  are  driven  there. 

The  shaft  of  this  engine,  if  high  or  low,  always  remains  in  a  horizontal  position, 
and  the  reduction  to  one-half  of  its  usual  length  simplifies  the  construction  very  much. 
The  outside  of  the  engine  is  nowhere  obstructed  by  gearing  except  by  the  pulley  f  on 
the  front  side ;  it  is  therefore  more  accessible  and  occu23ies  less  room. 

H.  D.  Burghardt,  millwright,  of  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  planned  and  built  the  engine, 
and  Mr.  Hudson  expresses  himself,  after  several  years  of  experience,  highly  pleased 
with  it. 

21.  Manner  of  Driving  and  Speed.— The  large  cog-wheels  which  formerly  used  to 
drive  the  engines  have  been  almost  altogether  superseded  by  pulleys  and  belts. 

Belts  are  preferable,  because : 

The  engines  can  be  set  up  at  almost  any  reasonable  distance  from  the  line 
shaft ; 

Belts  slij)  or  jump  off  if  a  thick  solid  substance  happens  to  get  under  the 
roll,  while  cog-wheels  would  break ; 

The  engines  may  almost  always  be  located  above  the  driving-shaft,  and  the 
pressure  with  which  the  roll  bears  on  the  rags  is  then  increased  by  the  ten^ 
sion  of  the  belt. 

The  friction  by  which  the  pulley  is  turned  is  proportionate  to  the  surface  covered 
by  the  belt. 

If  once  overstrained,  a  belt  will  soon  be  weakened  and  worthless ;  strong  wide 
belts  are  therefore  the  cheapest  in  the  long  run. 

The  driving  belt  of  a  300  to  400  pound  engine  should  not  be  less  than  10  to  12 
inches  wide,  and  16  to  18  inches  width  is  required  for  an  engine  which  carries  800 
to  1000  pounds. 

Rubber  belts  will  withstand  the  influence  of  water  and  of  a  moist  atmosphere, 
both  of  which  abound  in  the  engine-room,  better  than  leather,  and  are  therefore  gen- 
erally preferred. 

The  number  of  turns  per  minute  which  washer-rolls  should  make  has  been  fixed 
by  experience  at  from  100  to  150  for  rolls  of  42  to  36  inches  diameter. 

22.  Bearings. — The  bearings  may  be  of  any  kind  of  metal,  or  even  hard  wood, 


44 


MANVFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


and  open  on  top.  They  should  be  oiled  by  some  good  feeder  or  with  pieces  of  fat  salt 
pork ;  the  indiscriminate  pouring  on  of  oil  is  not  only  expensive,  but  very  inefficient 
besides. 

We  have  seen  an  oil  feeder,  which  may  be  made  at  any  mill  with  little  or  no 
expense.  It  consists,  as  shown  in  Fig.  23,  of  a  wooden  roll  a, 
of  about  2  to  3  inches  diameter,  and  nearly  the  length  of  the 
journal,  and  is  covered  with  felting,  several  thicknesses  of 
which  have  been  wound  up  on  it.  The  journals  of  this  roll 
are  carried  by  a  forked  piece  of  sheet  iron  b,  which  is  fast- 
ened to  the  box.  The  felt-covered  roll  rests  on  and  is  turned 
by  the  journal  c.  The  oil  is  poured  on  the  felt,  and  from  it 
gradually  distributed  on  the  journal  c. 

23.  Bed-plates. — The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  work  done  by  an  engine  depend 
to  a  large  extent  on  the  bed-plate. 

Though  this  chapter  treats  of  washing  engines  and  not  of  beaters,  their  require- 
ments are  in  so  many  respects  alike  that  much  of  the  following  discussion  holds  good 
for  both. 

The  washers  always  do  the  hardest  and,  where  they  finish  the  pulp  at  one  opera- 
tion, as  in  wrapping  mills,  all  the  work ;  and  must  therefore  be  supplied  with  sub- 
stantial bed-plates.  The  simplest  and  oldest  kind  is  composed  of  steeled  knives  like 
the  fly-bars,  bolted  together,  and  placed  in  a  wooden  block  or  cast-iron  box  under  the 
roll,  whence  they  can  be  removed  at  will  through  an  opening  in  the  side,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  21. 

They  are  always  put  in  oblique,  in  order  to  act  as  shears  with  the  fly-bars,  that 
is,  they  deviate  from  the  square  line  about  1  to  2  inches. 

The  rags  are  pushed  to  the  side  occupied  by  the  forward  part  of  this  plate,  and 
it  has  been  improved  upon  by  bending  the  knives  in  the  middle,  so  that  both  ends 
are  equally  the  backward  and  the  middle  the  forward  points.  From  its  form  the  latter 
is  called  the  "  elbow-plate." 

As  said  before,  the  rags  are  constantly  pushed  to  the  forward  point,  and,  as  this 
is  the  centre,  they  will  stand  higher  there  than  at  the  sides.  It  can  actually  be  seen 
in  any  beater,  provided  with  elbow-plates,  where  the  surface  of  the  pulp  is  close  to 
the  lower  side  of  the  shaft.  The  straight  line  of  the  latter  shows  plainly  the  curve 
of  the  surface  of  the  pulp  to  be  higher  in  the  middle. 

The  solid  elbow -plate  is  very  generally  used  in  washing  engines. 

Whenever  the  edges  of  the  plate  are  worn  down,  it  must  be  taken  out  and  sharp- 
ened, and  to  avoid  this,  various  new  inventions  have  been  devised. 

Thin  steel  plates  are  cut  into  the  size  of  bed-knives,  and  wood  or  soft  metal 
is  filled  in  between  them  to  keep  the  edges  at  about  the  distance  of  ordinary  plates. 
The  rags  wear  down  the  wood  much  quicker  than  the  steel ;  the  latter  projects  there- 
fore and  constantly  presents  sharp  edges. 

This  is  certainly  a  valuable  improvement,  as  the  plates  are  kept  without  assist- 


WASHING,  BLEAGHINQ,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


45 


ance  at  the  same  degree  of  sharpness,  while  solid  steel  or  iron  ones  are  constantly 
changing  from  the  time  they  are  put  in  until  taken  out. 

The  steel  can  be  bent  into  almost  any  desirable  shape,  of  which  the  most  promi- 
nent are  the  elbow  and  zigzag  plates. 

Plates  of  the  elbow  form,  made  of  thin  y'g  to  |  inch  steel,  have  the  same  advan- 
tages as  the  solid  ones,  and  are  used  by  many  experienced  paper-makers.  The  majority 
of  the  Massachusetts  mills  use  solid  elbow -plates  in  the  washers,  because  they  .will 
stand  hard  knocks  better  than  those  of  thin  steel,  but  they  prefer  the  elbows  of  the 
latter  kind  for  the  beaters. 

To  form  the  zigzag  plate  the  steel  is  bent  into  an  undulating  line,  which  appears 
composed  of  a  large  number  (fifteen  to  twenty)  of  elbows  or  triangles.  They  do  not 
push  the  rags  to  the  middle  like  the  elbow-plate,  but  as  an  undulating  line  is  longer 
than  a  straight  one,  they  give  more  cutting  surface.  Their  sharper  angles  also  in- 
crease the  cutting  power,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  they  grind  rags  quicker 
than  any  other  kind. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  fly-bars  are  worn  out  unevenly  by  these  zigzag  plates. 
They  are  cut  by  the  corners  of  the  triangles  or  short  elbows,  so  that  after  some  time 
they  acquire  more  the  appearance  of  saws,  and  must  be  frequently  sharpened. 

There  is  a  larger  surface  of  steel  concentrated  in  the  corners  than  on  the  same 
space  between  them,  and  the  larger  friction  surface  necessarily  grinds  out  more  than 
the  smaller  one. 

Fig.  24.  Fig.  25. 


Thomas  Lindsay  has  constructed  a  little  apparatus  moved  by  the  engine-shaft, 
which  gives  to  the  roll  and  shaft  a  slow  rocking  or  lateral  motion,  whereby  every  part 
of  the  fly-bars  is  brought  in  contact  as  well  with  the  corners  as  witli  the  rest  of  the 
zigzag  plate.    It  is  shown  by  Fig.  24  and  Fig.  25,  in  side  view  and  in  section  through 


46 


MANUFACTUEE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


A  A.  The  belt  x,  driven  by  the  roll-shaft,  turns  the  pulley  b  and  the  worm  d  on  the 
same  shaft  c.  The  worm-wheel  e,  driven  by  d,  carries  an  eccentric  f,  which  moves 
the  forked  lever  g  to  and  fro.  This  lever  g  is  fastened  at  h,  and  holds  and  moves 
the  roll-shaft  with  its  forks,  giving  it  a  rocking  motion  of  altogether  about  f  inch 
or  about  |  inch  to  each  side. 

The  fly-bars  are  hereby  preserved  as  uniformly  as  if  any  other  kind  of  plate 
were  used. 

The  six  large  beaters  at  Messrs.  Jessup  &  Moore's  paper-mill,  Rockland,  near 
Wilmington,  Delaware,  which  furnish  the  pulp  for  three  machines,  or  nine  tons  of 
paper  per  day,  are  supplied  with  these  rockers. 

Mr.  Lindsay  has  also  used  a  new  kind  of  fly-bars  in  these  engines.  They  consist 
of  common  iron  plates,  with  thin  steel  plates  bolted  to  them,  which,  like  the  bed- 
plates, require  no  sharpening.  When  worn  down,  the  bolts  are  simply  loosened,  the 
steel  moved  further  out,  and  fastened  again. 

The  large  number  of  bolts,  with  which  the  steel  is  fastened,  occupy  much  of  the 
room  between  the  fly-bars,  and  are  open  to  objections.  If  one  of  them  should  drop  out, 
it  might  ruin  both  the  roll  and  plate.  We  understand,  however,  that  new  engines, 
which  are  to  be  built  for  the  same  firm,  will  be  supplied  with  these  fly-bars. 

Zigzag  plates  are  often  supplied  with  straight  bars  at  the  outside  and  centre,  or 
the  second  half  of  knives  is  reversed,  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  corners 
better,  and  to  prevent  them  from  cutting  the  fly-bars.  Paper-makers  who  have  tried 
them,  have  found  that  these  bed-jilates  injure  the  roll  less,  but  lose  some  of  their 
cutting  capacity. 

It  is  evident  that  zigzag  plates  should  be  used  only  for  the  strongest  stock,  such 
as  manilla,  &c.,  and  only  in  the  interest  of  quick  work.  Where  quality  is  more  an 
object  than  quantity,  no  sharj)  knives  of  any  kind  are  to  be  allowed  in  the  engine. 

Cast-iron  blocks,  the  tops  of  which  are  planed  or  cut  into  sharp  ridges,  are  suc- 
cessfully used  for  very  coarse  papers. 

Lately  even  stone  bed-plates  have  come  into  use,  and  they  are  probably  suitable 
for  paper  made  from  weak  fibres,  which  cannot  stand  the  action  of  knives ;  provided, 
however,  that  the  right  kind  of  stone  can  be  obtained. 

The  road  which  the  pulp  must  travel  over  during  one  trip  around  the  engine,  is 
very  difierent  for  different  parts  of  the  tub.  While  the  pulp  near  the  midfellow 
simply  turns  round  the  corner  of  that  partition,  the  stuff"  which  travels  along  tlie  out- 
side follows  the  outlines  of  the  half  circles  at  both  ends. 

In  an  engine-tub  of  6i  feet  width  and  15 i  feet  length,  for  example,  the  mid- 
fellow  would  be  about  9  feet  long,  and  the  pulp  which  moves  close  to  it  would  go 
over  a  route  of  18  feet  length  only,  while  that  adjacent  to  the  rim  would  have  to  travel 
over  a  distance  of  18  +  20  =  38  feet,  or  more  than  twice  as  far. 

The  pulp  moves  with  nearly  equal  speed  in  all  jyarts  of  a  cross-section,  and 
passes  nearly  twice  as  often  under  the  roll  near  the  midfellow  than  near  the  outside. 

One  might  therefore  suppose  that  the  pulp  should  be  beaten  in  half  as  much 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


47 


time  inside  than  outside ;  but  if  it  were,  it  would  hardly  be  j)Ossible  to  ^^roduce  a 
uniform  sheet  of  paper  with  our  ordinary  engines. 

The  engine,  hoM^ever,  does  not  operate  exactly  in  this  manner.  If,  as  we  may 
for  a  moment  suppose,  twice  as  many  rags  were  cut  in  the  same  time  and  with  the  same 
intensity  near  the  midfellow  as  near  the  outside,  the  plate  and  fly-bars  would  become 
worn  out  in  the  same  proportion  in  those  places,  and,  after  a  short  time,  the  distance 
between  the  knives  would  be  such  that  the  rags  would  not  be  ground  at  all  where 
they  pass  often,  and  with  great  force  where  they  pass  less  frequently.  That  this  is 
actually  the  case  is  conclusively  proven  by  the  greater  wear  and  tear  of  the  plates 
near  the  front  side  of  all  engines  with  stationary  back  side  bearings. 

The  pulp  which  is  less  frequently  subjected  to  the  grinding  action  of  the  roll  is 
worked  upon  with  proportionately  increased  intensity,  and  thus  likewise  transformed 
into  fibres  which  can  be  formed  into  paper.  The  unequal  treatment  to  which  the 
different  parts  are  subjected  produces,  however,  fibres  of  very  different  length. 

An  engineer  who  uses  the  paddle  frequently  and  with  skill,  can  mix  the  pulp  so, 
that  the  fibres  throughout  the  whole  mass  change  places,  and  a  homogeneous  pulp 
will  be  the  result. 

Fio.  26. 


^  NG*  ^  ^  ^ 

Fig.  27. 


Every  engineer,  however,  is  not  skilful  and  industrious,  and  improvements, 
which  tend  to  simplify  the  operation  of  beating,  are  therefore  very  desirable, 

Messrs.  Nugent  &  Coghlan  have  received  a  patent  of  invention,  dated  July  30th, 
1872,  for  improved  bed-plates.  Fig.  26  is  a  plan  of  one  construction,  and  Figs.  27 
and  28  view  and  plan  of  another. 


48 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  plates  are  larger  at  the  front  side  of  the  engine  than  near  the  mid- 
fellow,  and  of  the  elbow  form ;  but  the  forward  point  of  the  knives  or  the  elbow  is 
located  at  one-third  of  its  width  from  the  front  end,  instead  of  being  in  the  middle, 
as  usually. 

The  pulp,  as  shown  before,  does  not  pass  as  frequently  over  the  plate  at  the 
front  side  as  further  back,  but  over  more  knives  and  a  larger  surface.  The  knives  of 
the  front  part  or  short  third  of  the  j)late  form  twice  as  large  an  angle  or  "shear" 
as  the  other  two-thirds,  and  therefore  cut  sharper. 

The  knives,  as  well  as  the  whole  body  of  the  plate,  represented  in  Figs.  27  and 
28,  are  of  the  elbow  form,  and  thus  present  sharper  angles  or  more  "shear"  than  the 
others.    Mr.  Nugent  prefers  this  latter  kind. 

The  inventors  speak  of  the  advantages  of  their  patent  plates  as  follows : 

"  Our  improvement  consists,  first,  in  gradually  increasing  the  number  of  knives  in  the  bed-plate 
from  the  end  adjacent  to  the  midfellow  to  the  end  abutting  against  the  outer  wall  or  rim  of  the  tub, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  gradually  increasing  cutting  surface  from  the  inner  to  the  outer  end  of  the  bed- 
plate, to  compensate  the  difference  in  the  number  of  times  the  stock  in  different  parts  of  the  tub  passes 
over  the  bed-plate  in  a  given  time,  the  object  being  to  produce  pulp  of  uniform  quality  throughout  the 
tub  ;  second,  in  the  emjjloyment  of  angular  knives,  the  angle  of  which,  or  the  line  toward  which  they 
converge,  is  located  nearest  the  outer  wall  of  the  tub,  so  that  the  increased  velocity  given  to  the  stock, 
by  drawing  it  rapidly  toward  this  line,  shall  be  made  available  in  increasing  the  speed  of  the  stock 
travelling  near  the  wall  or  rim  of  the  tub." 

These  jiatent  plates  are  in  operation  at  Messrs.  Nugent  &  Co.'s  mills,  at  Whip- 
pany,  Morris  County,  New  Jersey,  which  the  author  has  visited.  The  screenings 
which  were  obtained  from  the  pulp-dresser  of  each  machine  during  one  week  were 
carefully  gathered,  and  scarcely  filled  a  hand-basin ;  while,  as  we  were  informed, 
two  ordinary  barrelfuls  used  to  be  collected  during  the  same  time,  and  from  the 
same  machine,  before  the  introduction  of  the  patent  plates.  Experience  of  this 
kind  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  value  of  the  invention,  as  it  proves  that  a  more 
uniform  pulp  is  produced  with  the  patent  plates  than  with  those  of  ordinary  con- 
struction. 

All  these  plates,  of  whatever  material  they  may  be  made,  must  be  raised  when- 
ever they  are  worn  down  too  low,  and,  if  not  self-sharpening,  they  must  be  taken  out 
and  sharpened  on  a  grindstone.  Strips  of  wood  or  boards  are  usually  put  under  the 
plates  for  the  purpose  of  raising  them. 

It  has  also  been  proposed  to  keep  the  roll  stationary,  and  raise  the  plate  instead 
by  means  of  an  appropriate  construction  ;  but  we  have  not  learned  that  the  plan  has 
ever  been  carried  out. 

24.  Grinding  the  Roll  and  Plate. — In  a  new  engine,  however  well  built,  the  roll 
never  fits  the  bed-plate  exactly,  and  it  is  necessary  to  grind  them  together  before 
starting.  This  grinding  has  the  additional  advantage  of  flattening  the  sharp  edges  of 
both  plates  and  fly-bars,  so  that  they  cannot  cut  the  rags  too  severely.    For  this  pur- 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  49 


pose  a  board  is  fitted  in  on  toj)  of  the  highest  point  of  the  backfall,  in  such  a  way 
that  nothing  can  escape  from  the  roll  in  that  direction.  Another  board,  about  a  foot 
high,  is  fitted,  for  the  same  purpose,  across  the  ascent  which  leads  to  the  roll,  as  tight 
as  possible.  Water  and  hard  sharp  sand  are  then  supplied  to  the  roll  between  these 
boards,  and  the  pulley  started. 

The  sharp  sand,  reinforced  by  fresh  additions,  soon  takes  oflP  the  edges  and  pro- 
jections. If  none  of  the  water  and  sand  is  allowed  to  escape  beyond  the  board  parti- 
tions, the  engineer  has  little  else  to  do  but  to  lower  the  roll  gradually  until  the  sound 
indicates  to  him,  by  its  uniformity,  that  the  engine  is  all  right.  To  make  sure  of  it,  he 
can  introduce  a  sheet  of  paper  under  the  roll,  and,  turning  the  pulley  by  hand,  try  if 
it  cuts  the  paper  all  around  and  across. 

25.  Washing. — Washing  engines  consume  large  quantities  of  clean  water,  and 
the  more  the  better.  This  water  must  be  supplied  through  pipes,  the  diameter  of 
which  varies  from  3  to  6  inches,  according  to  the  pressure  with  which  it  is  forced, 
the  size  of  the  engine,  and  the  capacity  of  the  washers.  It  should,  as  soon  as  possible, 
become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  pulp  by  the  action  of  the  roll,  and  is  therefore 
introduced  at  the  end,  where  the  rags  ascend. 

It  enters  the  engine  either  from  the  top  or  bottom.  In  the  first  case,  the  flow  of 
water  is  open  to  the  eye,  and  additional  filtering  arrangements,  such  as  flannel  bags, 
can  be  used,  through  which  it  must  pass  before  reaching  the  pulp. 

If  the  water  is  admitted  from  below,  it  is  more  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
pulp,  stirs  up  stragglers  on  the  bottom,  and  displaces  the  dirty  water,  driving  it  to  the 
top,  where  it  finds  itself  in  contact  with  the  washers. 

Provided  that  the  water  is  well  filtered  before  it  reaches  the  engine,  the  latter 
system  deserves  the  preference. 

26.  Circulation.  Nugent's  Pulp  Propeller. — After  the  water  and  pulp  have  been 
thrown  together  over  the  backfall  by  the  roll,  they  accumulate  there  until  the 
additional  quantities  constantly  arriving  force  them  to  move  on.  If  the  mass  is 
very  much  diluted,  it  flows  easily,  like  water,  and  the  surface  will  be  level  all 
through  the  engine ;  but  if,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  contents  are  not  so  fluid,  some 
pressure  is  necessary  to  push  them  forward  on  their  return  trip.  Thus  the  pulp 
accumulates  sometimes  behind  the  backfall,  to  stand  6  and  more  inches  higher  there 
than  before  the  roll  at  the  other  end.  The  tub  of  an  engine  should  therefore  be  built 
highest  where  the  pulp  leaves  the  roll,  and  from  there  descend  in  a  straight  line,  fol- 
lowing the  sides,  until  it  reaches  the  point  where  the  pn\p  enters  the  roll,  or  to 
the  cap. 

If  the  engines  are  heavily  loaded,  6  to  8  inches  difference  in  height  is  hardly 
sufficient,  while  at  other  times  not  half  of  it  will  be  reached.  It  is  convenient  to 
have  5  to  7  inches  elevation  for  engines  which  carry  from  400  to  500  pounds  of 
pulp.  Those  which  serve  as  washers  only,  may  never  be  filled  so  high  as  to  require 
it,  but  the  pulp  should  always  be  thick  in  the  beaters. 

7 


50 


MANTJFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Messrs.  Thomas  Nugent  &  Co.,  of  Whipj)any,  Morris  County,  N.  J.,  have 

Fio.  -29. 


received  a  patent,  dated  March  12,  1872,  for  a  pulp  propeller,  shown  by  Fig.  29  in 

working  order,  and  by  Fig.  30  removed  from  the 

Fig.  30. 


engine. 


It  consists  of  two  cast  flanges,  to  which  four 
curved  brass  wings  or  arms  are  fastened  by  means 
of  countersunk  screws.  If  any  one  of  the  arms 
should  break,  a  new  one  can  easily  be  put  in  its 
place,  by  simply  turning  out  the  screws  and  re- 
setting them  with  the  new  arm. 

The  inventors  explain  the  use  of  the  propeller 
and  its  advantages  as  follows  : 


"  In  the  ordinary  beating  engines  for  making  paper  pulp,  no  automatic  means  is  provided  to  give 
motion  to  the  stock  other  than  the  knife-blades  projecting  from  the  surface  of  the  beating  roll  or  cyl- 
inder; and  when  first  furnished,  the  stock,  owing  to  its  long  state,  moves  so  slowly  in  the  engine  that 
it  requires  to  be  propelled  by  the  attendant  with  a  stick  or  paddle,  which,  besides  being  a  very 
laborious  operation,  is  done  in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  for  only  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  The  want 
of  an  automatic  propeller  is  still  more  felt  when  two  kinds — hard  and  soft — of  stock  are  used,  in  which 
case  the  hard  stock  lags  behind  and  the  soft  or  light  stock  floats  ahead,  making  irregular  pulp,  unless 
the  stock  is  constantly  stirred  by  the  attendant ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  slow  motion  and  laborious 
work,  the  engine  cannot  be  furnished  to  its  full  capacity. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  51 


"  These  difficulties  are  wholly  overcome  by  the  use  of  the  propeller,  which  is  driven  by  the  ordi- 
nary mechanism  used  in  driving  the  cylinder  washer.  The  propeller  may  be  set  in  motion  as  soon  as 
the  washing  cylinder  has  performed  the  functions  allotted  to  it,  which  will  cause  the  stock  to  move 
with  the  desired  velocity  around  and  around  in  the  vat,  under  the  beating  roll,  until  it  has  been  prop- 
erly reduced  to  pulp.  The  current  is  so  much  faster,  and  the  stock  is  operated  upon  with  so  much 
greater  regularity,  by  the  use  of  this  propeller,  that  it  will  be  reduced  to  pulp  in  a  much  shorter  space 
of  time,  and  the  product  will  be  greatly  improved  in  quality. 

"  The  engine  also  can  be  furnished  to  its  utmost  capacity — carrying  twenty-five  per  cent,  more, 
and  taking  no  more  perceptible  power.  The  roll-bars  can  be  used  until  worn  down  very  short,  as  you 
do  not  depend  on  the  bars  to  draw  the  pulp  under  the  roll. 

"  The  tapering  form  of  the  propeller  gives  to  the  current  of  the  stock  a  greater  velocity  along  the 
outer  wall  of  the  engine,  where  it  should  travel  the  fastest." 

The  propellers,  which  we  have  seen  in  operation,  seemed  to  accomplish  what  the 
inventors  promise,  for  the  engines  were  very  heavily  loaded  and  the  stuff  turned 
well. 

Wherever  it  is  deemed  desirable  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  beaters,  by  load- 
ing them  with  a  larger  quantity  of  pulp  than  the  roll  alone  can  easily  turn,  a  propeller 
will  do  good  service. 

27.  Washing-  Cylinders  and  Syphons. — In  former  times,  strainers  in  the  cap  of  the 
engine,  consisting  of  a  flat  wooden  frame  covered  with  wire-cloth,  were  used  exclu- 
sively for  washing ;  but  they  have  been  entirely  superseded  by  washing  cylinders. 
The  rags  or  pulp  are  thrown  with  such  violence  against  the  strainer  by  the  roll  that 
a  large  quantity  of  fine  fibres  must  go  through  it  and  be  lost.  It  is  not  visible  while 
at  work,  being  incased  in  the  cap,  and  large  quantities  of  pulp  may  have  been  lost 
before  a  hole  or  break  is  discovered,  if  it  should  occur. 

The  dirtiest,  coarsest  rags  are  washed  perfectly  clean  with  cylinder  washers  alone 
in  nearly  every  mill  in  the  United  States,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  these  wasteful 
strainers  should  not  everywhere  be  entirely  abandoned. 

Most  so-called  cylinder  washers  have  eight  corners,  and  as  many  buckets,  shaped 
with  a  view  to  lifting  up  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  water,  discharging  it  through 
the  centre.  They  are  sometimes  made  of  copper  and  brass,  but  mostly  have  cast-iron 
shafts,  and  discharge  centres,  and  wooden  buckets. 

The  heads  of  each  of  the  washers  d  d,  Figs,  20  and  21,  are  of  copper  or  boards, 
fastened  to  the  centre  or  discharge  piece,  which  is  keyed  on  the  shaft.  The  surface  is 
formed  of  eight  separate  wooden  frames,  covered  with  a  coarse  brass  wire-cloth,  of 
about  No.  3  or  4,  which  serves  as  a  support  to  a  finer  one  of  about  No.  60. 

The  washer  shaft  rests  in  two  boxes  attached  to  racks  e,  and  can  be  raised 
or  lowered  in  high  stands  by  means  of  a  shaft  with  pinions  and  crank  f.  When  in 
the  lowest  position,  a  cog-wheel  g,  on  the  washer  shaft,  meets  a  stationary  joinion 
which  is  driven  by  a  pulley  and  belt,  and  thus  causes  the  cylinder  to  revolve. 

The  washers  usually  met  with  may  be  much  improved  upon. 

In  most  of  those  which  we  have  seen,  the  buckets,  for  no  apparent  reason,  are 
placed  at  a  distance  of  2  to  3  inches  from  the  outside  wire. 


52 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  space  between  the  bucket  and  the  wire  is  evidently  lost,  while  it  might  be 
made  useful  by  extending  the  former  as  close  to  the  circumference  as  possible. 

The  discharge  centres  are  often  so  narrow  that  the  water  cannot  pass  out  as 
fast  as  it  enters. 

In  syphon  washers  the  shaft  is  a  stationary  pipe,  from  which  several  vertical 
branch  j^ipes  extend  inside  of  the  cylinder  downwards  nearly  to  the  cover.  A  con- 
tinuation of  it  descends  several  feet  outside  of  the  engine,  and  is  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock at  the  end. 

The  cylinder  is  built  as  light  as  possible,  but  strong  enough  to  support  the  wire- 
cloth  with  which  it  is  covered,  and  revolves  on  the  immovable  hollow  shaft,  pro- 
pelled by  the  motion  of  the  pulp  only. 

It  is  necessary  to  fill  or  jjrime  the  pipe,  before  the  suction  can  be  started,  through 
a  short  pipe  with  stop-valve  and  funnel,  which  can  be  fed  from  the  general  water 
supply.  After  the  .syphon  has  been  filled,  the  cock  at  the  lower  end  is  opened,  the 
water  escapes,  creating  a  vacuum,  which  is  refilled  by  the  water  inside  of  the  cylinder. 
The  liquid  part  of  the  pulp  passes  through  the  wire  cloth,  and  thus  flows  away 
through  the  syphon  in  a  constant  stream,  until  it  is  prevented  by  some  cause  from 
entering  the  cylinder. 

This  happens  sometimes  when  the  stuff  sticks  to  the  wire-cloth  and  covers  it 
with  a  coat  of  fibres.  The  syphon,  not  being  fully  supplied,  empties  itself,  and  can- 
not be  started  without  being  primed  again.  If  it  is  not  quickly  discovered  that  the 
syphon  has  stopped  working,  the  engine  will  be  filled  up  by  the  wash  water  and 
ultimately  run  over. 

This  washer  requires  no  gearing  and  recommends  itself  by  simplicity,  but  the 
difiiculty  mentioned  is,  according  to  the  author's  experience,  so  serious  that  cylinders 
which  are  driven  by  power,  and  never  stop  work  unexpectedly,  deserve  the  pref- 
erence. 

The  syphon  may  be  connected  with  a  pump  or  other  artificial  ■  suction  arrange- 
ment, and  thus  made  to  work  at  all  times,  but  then  the  simplicity  of  the  washer — its 
princii:)al  advantage— will  be  lost. 

28.  Hammond's  Washer. — A  washer  which  seems  to  overcome  all  these  difficul- 
ties has  been  patented  by  George  W.  Hammond,  manager  of  Cumberland  Mills, 
and  Thomas  T.  Foster,  of  Westbrook,  Maine. 

Fig.  31  represents  a  section  parallel  with  the  heads ;  Fig.  32  shows  a  section 
through  X  Y,  and  the  following  is  the  description  as  given  by  the  inventors  in  the 
specification  of  their  patent,  dated  April  16,  1872. 

"a  shows  a  rotating  cylinder,  covered  with  a  network  or  gauze  of  wire  as  common,  and  rotating 
in  the  ordinary  manner  with  the  shaft  B.  c  shows  the  buckets  or  scoops  attached  to  the  interior  of  the 
rotating  cylinder,  and  which  take  up  the  water  as  the  cylinder  revolves.  As  the  cylinder  rotates,  the 
buckets  or  scoops  are  carried  around  until  they  are  so  inclined  as  to  empty  their  contents  into  the 
receiver  or  vat  D,  from  which  the  said  contents  run  out  at  the  aperture  E.  The  scoops  or  buckets  c 
are  of  the  form  indicated  in  Fig.  31,  and  extend  the  whole  width  of  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  A  to 
the  inside  of  the  walls  F,  to  which  they  are  bolted. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  53 


"In  the  old  form  in  which  this  device  was  made  the  scoops  were  different  in  construction,  and 
were  made  of  wood.  Moreover,  their  arrangement  within  the  rotating  cylinder  was  also  unlike  our 
invention.    We  make  our  scoops  of  metal  (galvanized  iron). 

"  The  pan  or  receiver  D-  is  suspended  on  the  central  shaft  B  by  the  loose  sleeves  G  and  arras  H, 
so  that,  notwithstanding  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder,  the  receiver  or  pan  always  remains  suspended, 


Fig.  31.  Fio.  32. 


and  is  not  carried  around  with  the  shaft  B  or  the  cylinder  A.  In  consequence  of  this  it  will  be  seen 
that  when  the  scoops  or  buckets  c  are  carried  by  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder  a,  so  that  they  or  any 
of  them  occupy  toward  said  cylinder  the  position  of  c',  they  will  then  discharge  or  empty  their  con- 
tents into  the  said  receiver  D,  from  which  the  said  contents  pass  away  through  the  aperture,  as  at  E, 
before  set  forth. 

"The  aperture  e  is  formed  by  the  projecting  ring  i  attached  to  the  exterior  of  one  of  the  ends  of 
the  cylinder  A.  From  the  shaft  b  extend  the  arms  a  6  c  to  the  interior  periphery  of  said  ring  i,  thus 
carrying  around  the  said  cylinder  with  the  revolution  of  the  shaft  b." 

The  only  objection  which  might  possibly  be  raised  to  this  construction  is  that  the 
receiver  d  might  be  carried  around  by  the  friction  of  the  shaft  b  in  the  sleeves  g. 
But  this  is  overcome  by  making  the  receiver  heavy  at  the  bottom,  and  by  filling  the 
sleeves  g  with  lignum  vitse,  thus  reducing  the  friction.    Fig.  33  and  Fig.  34  are 


Fig.  33.  •  Fig.  34. 


sections  on  a  larger  scale  lengthway  and  across  one  of  the  eight  windows  or  wire 
frames,  which  cover  Mr.  Hammond's  washer.    The  outside  of  these  wooden  frames 
is  formed  by  the  pieces  k,  and  the  numerous  pointed  crosspieces  l  support  the  wire. 
No  tacks  are  used  on  these  frames,  but  all  around,  where  the  wire  is  usually 


54 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  FAPER  FEOM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


fastened,  a  ridge  m  is  cut  out  about  |  inch  deep  and  i  inch  wide  in  the  pieces  k,  and 
the  wire  spread  over  this  excavation.  A  piece  of  brass  fitting  the  channel  m  exactly 
is  then  pressed  into  it  and  held  down  by  brass  buttons  or  washers  n,  thus  fastening 
the  wire  with  a  firm  grasp. 

A  number  of  these  washing  cylinders  are  in  operation,  and  it  is  stated  that  one 
of  them  performs  as  much  work  as  two  of  the  ordinary  kind.  As  far  as  we  are  able 
to  judge  from  personal  observation,  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  such  is  the  case. 

The  water-pipe,  which  used  to  supply  two  ordinary  washers,  is  not  sufficient  to 
furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  for  one  of  this  kind. 

29.  Fox's  Washer. — A  washing  cylinder,  which  for  cheap  construction  and  com- 
parative efficiency  surpasses  all  others  known  to  us,  is  represented  by  sections  length 
and  crossway  in  Figs.  35  and  36,  as  drawn  from  memory.  It  has  been  built  by  Mr. 
Fox,  millwright,  and  is  in  operation  at  Mr.  Dexter's  Star  Mills,  Windsor  Locks, 
Connecticut. 

It  is  a  wooden  cylinder  with  no  iron  in  it  besides  the  shaft.  A  solid  cone  a 
forms  the  centre,  and  the  wooden  buckets  b  have  the  usual  form.    They  discharge 


Fig.  35.  Fig.  36. 


all  around  the  smaller  end  of  the  cone  into  the  box  c  as  soon  as  they  have  passed 
the  centre  line  or  the  top  of  the  box  c.  The  side  of  this  box  next  to  the  cylinder 
is  placed  so  close  to  it,  that  it  prevents  any  water  from  leaving  the  buckets  until  they 
pass  it ;  but  then  it  pours  out  in  copious  streams  open  to  the  sight,  and  leaves  through 
the  stationary  discharge-pipe  d.  No  frames  are  used,  but  strong  wire  about  inch 
thick  is  wound  around  the  buckets  so  as  to  leave  only  about  |  inch  space  between 
the  turns  or  circles.  To  sustain  this  wire  there  is  an  intermediate  board  e  put  in 
the  middle  between  every  two  buckets,  so  that  it  rests  on  sixteen  supports.  The  wire- 
cloth  is  directly  spread  over  this  wire  frame,  and  fastened  on  the  wooden  head- 
boards F, 

The  buckets  thus  reach  out  to  the  wire,  and  the  cone  centre  causes  a  quick  dis- 
charge. 

30.  EflBciency  of  Washers. — The  time,  in  which  rags  can  be  cleaned,  depends  prin- 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  55 


cipally  on  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be  passed  through  the  washers,  so  that  an 
engine  with  two  cylinders  may  accomplish  nearly  as  much  as  two  engines  with  one 
cylinder. 

The  washing  cylinders  are  located  on  each  side  of  the  shaft,  and  driven  either 
directly  from  it,  or  from  a  countershaft  at  the  ceiling  at  a  slow  speed  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  pulp. 

The  deeper  a  washer  dips  into  the  pulp  the  more  water  is  taken  out,  but  if 
sunk  too  low,  the  flow  of  pulp  will  be  obstructed.  It  is  well  to  keej)  the  engine  as 
full  as  possible  while  washing. 

Three  feet  diameter  is  the  usual  size  of  a  washing  cylinder,  and  at  least  2  inches 
space  must  be  left  on  each  side  between  it  and  the  sides  of  the  engine. 

These  washers  somewhat  resemble  a  working  cylinder,  and  it  is  only  natural 
that  short  pasty  pulp,  such  as  old  papers,  straw,  &c.,  furnish,  sticks  to  the  wire,  and 
forms  sheets  on  it,  thus  making  it  partially  inactive.  They  can,  however,  easily  be 
kept  clear  by  means  of  a  shower-pipe,  fastened  parallel  to  the  shaft,  a  few  inches 
distant  from  the  wire,  where  it  emerges  from  the  pulp. 

Most  impurities  are  heavier  than  water,  and  have  a  tendency  to  sink  to  the 
bottom.  If  the  engine  is  very  deep,  a  large  portion  of  the  contents  can  pass  below 
the  washer,  without  coming  in  contact  with  it,  and  remain  uncleaned. 

Washing  engines  should  therefore  be  always  very  shallow ;  their  size  may  be  in- 
creased in  every  direction  except  in  depth. 

A  well-constructed  engine  with  two  washers  will  transform  the  dirtiest  rags,  if 
well  boiled,  &c.,  into  clean  pulj)  within  two  to  four  hours.  As  soon  as  the  water  runs 
off  pure,  the  cylinders  are  hoisted  up  and  the  roll  is  let  down  sufficiently  to  draw  out 
the  rags  and  grind  them  into  long  half  stuff. 

31.  Size  of  Engines. — Engines  of  all  sizes  are  used,  from  those  carrying  100 
pounds  to  those  of  1500  pounds ;  and  it  is  an  object  of  controversy  among  paper- 
makers  which  size  is  to  be  preferred. 

It  is  evident  that  one  engine  of  600  pounds  takes  less  room,  costs  less  to  build, 
to  put  up,  and  to  run,  than  two  of  300  pounds ;  and  there  is  no  reason  why  an 
engine  carrying  600,  or  even  1000  pounds,  if  built  on  correct  principles,  should  not 
produce  as  good  a  pulp  as  one  of  300  pounds. 

The  facts  seem  to  bear  out  this  opinion,  as  nearly  every  new  mill  contains  larger 
engines  than  the  one  whose  place  it  took.  Few  new  ones  are  built  of  less  than  400 
pounds  capacity,  and  the  tendency  is  upwards  to  600  and  800,  and  even  1500 
pounds. 

An  engine  with  a  roll  of  3  feet  width  and  a  vat  about  14  feet  long  and  6i  feet 
wide,  24  to  30  inches  deep,  carries  from  350  to  450  pounds.  A  4  feet  roll  and  vat 
in  proportion  furnishes  600  to  750  pounds ;  and  a  4J  feet  roll  in  a  vat  9i  feet  wide 
and  22  i  feet  long  constitutes  a  1000  pounder.  New  engines,  which  have  been  con- 
structed for  some  of  the  largest  paper-making  firms  in  this  country,  are  of  wood  or 
iron,  with  rolls  5  feet  wide,  and  capable  of  turning  out  over  1500  pounds  of  paper. 


56  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

As  a  curiosity,  we  may  mention  an  engine  with  four  rolls,  a  plan  of  which  is 

represented  by  Fig.  37.  We  have  seen  it  in 
operation  at  Messrs.  Campbell,  Hall  &  Co.'s 
mill,  near  Norwich,  Conn.  The  engine  forms 
the  four  sides  of  a  hollow  square,  with  a  roll  a 
on  each  side,  driven  by  a  common  wheel  b  in  the 
centre.  A  washing  cylinder  c  is  placed  in  every 
corner.  It  only  diifers  from  four  separate  en- 
gines by  not  having  a  midfellow  and  by  the  flow 
of  the  pulp  directly  from  one  roll  to  another. 

The  object  of  this  construction  seems  to  be 
increased  capacity ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  make 
the  four  independent  rolls  work  exactly  alike, 
to  keep  the  knives  at  the  same  degree  of  sharp- 
ness, and  to  raise  or  lower  them  one  as  much 
as  the  other.  If  this  is  not  done,  some  of  the 
four  rolls  will  do  all  the  work,  while  the  rest  are  simply  turning ;  and  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  the  engine  does  not  give  satisfaction. 

32.  Foundation. — Engines  are  heavy  and  hard  working  machines,  which  require 
a  solid  foundation.  They  are  usually  located  in  the  second  story,  because  they  have 
to  empty  into  chests  or  drainers  below  them ;  and  as  these  drainers  generally  occupy 
all  the  available  s^^ace,  solid  stone  pillars  can  be  used  in  few  cases  only.  If  the 
building  is,  at  least  uj)  to  the  second  floor,  constructed  of  stone  or  brick,  heavy  tim- 
bers, about  12  by  16  inches  strong,  laid  across  these  walls,  and  supported  by  posts, 
will  make  a  good  foundation.  Three  to  five  of  them,  parallel  with  the  shaft,  are 
enough  to  carry  an  engine. 

Where  exjiense  is  less  an  .object  than  safety  and  durability,  iron  girders  and 
pillars  take  the  place  of  wood. 

The  engines,  if  not  too  small,  are  heavy  enough  to  stand  on  these  girders  with- 
out other  fastening  than  the  floor,  which  is  laid  tight  around  the  bottom,  and  keeps 
them  in  place. 

It  is  easy  to  form  an  idea  of  the  force  which  is  always  at  work  to  vibrate  or  shake 
the  foundation,  by  considering  that  every  fly-bar  passes  every  knife  of  the  plate  once 
in  a  revolution ;  or,  supposing  the  engine  to  have  50  fly-bars,  15  bed-knives,  and  to 
run  with  120  turns,  it  will  make  50  x  15  x  120  =  90,000  cuts  per  minute. 

Anybody  standing  alongside  of  an  engine  working  rope,  with  the  roll  down,  will 
easily  be  convinced  by  the  noise  and  vibration  that  the  foundation  can  hardly  be 
made  too  solid. 

33.  Discharge. — The  discharge-valve  (g  in  Fig.  18  or  i  in  Fig.  20)  should  be  as 
far  distant  as  possible  from  the  point  where  the  water  enters,  so  that  it  will  sweep 
over  most  of  the  bottom  before  leaving  the  engine.  The  time  required  to  empty  an 
engine  is  lost,  and  a  quick  discharge  desirable.   The  valve  is  therefore  always  a  large 


Fig.  37. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  57 


one — not  less  than  6  to  8  inches  diameter.  Smaller  valves  are  also  provided,  through 
which  the  engine  and  sand-traps  can  be  cleaned  out.  They  are  all  of  brass,  with 
seats  of  the  same  metal,  and  when  closed  are  flat  with  the  bottom,  so  as  to  offer  no 
obstruction ;  there  is  only  a  little  cavity  in  the  centre,  with  a  strip  across  it,  of  which 
the  engineer  can  get  hold  with  an  iron  hook,  while  the  engine  is  full. 

The  discharge-valve  is  connected  with  wooden  spouts  or  copper  pipes,  through 
which  the  pulp  is  emptied.  The  larger  these  are,  and  the  more  fall  they  have,  the 
better,  because  the  pulp  will  not  be  obstructed,  but  flow  away  rapidly,  and  the  engine 
be  quickly  cleared.  For  the  same  reason  sharp  corners  are  to  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible. 

(b)  Bleaching. 

The  rags  are  bleached :  with  liquids  in  the  engine ;  with  liquids  in  drainers ; 
with  gas. 

34.  Bleaching  Powders. — The  chemical  which  plays  the  principal  role  in  our 
bleaching  processes  is  commercially  called  bleaching  salts  or  powders,  and  improperly 
also  chloride  of  lime. 

It  is  produced  by  introducing  chlorine  gas  into  hydrate  of  lime  (slacked  lime). 
In  the  manufacture  of  soda  large  quantities  of  hydrochloric  acid  are  obtained,  which 
would  be  nearly  worthless  if  they  could  not  be  utilized  in  furnishing  the  chlorine  for 
this  substance. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  an  abundance  of  all  the  raw  materials  required  by 
the  soda-makers,  but  nevertheless,  strange  to  say,  with  very  poor  economy,  we  allow 
ourselves  to  be  permanently  dependent  on  England  for  our  supply  of  this  important 
article,  and  consequently  also  of  bleaching  powders. 

These  powders  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  combination  in  equal  parts  of  the 
elements  calcium  Ca,  the  basis  of  lime,  and  chlorine  gas  CI,  and  accordingly  called 
chloride  of  lime.  It  has  since  been  found  that  this  is  not  the  case,  but  that  they  consist 
of  the  elements  calcium,  oxygen,  and  chlorine,  in  equal  quantities. 

The  combination  of  hypochlorite  of  lime  with  chloride  of  calcium, 

CaO.ClO  +  CaCl 

% 

contains  equal  quantities  (2Ca  +  20  +  2C1)  of  these  three  elements,  and  gives  a  sat- 
isfactory explanation  of  the  chemical  action  of  the  powders. 

It  is  therefore  generally  accepted  that  bleaching  powders  are  a  union  of  hypo- 
chlorite of  lime  and  chloride  of  calcium ;  and  Fresenius  has  found  that  they  contain 
in  addition  some  free  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl),  hydrated  lime  (CaO,HO),  and 
water  in  variable  quantities. 

The  chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl)  has  a  very  strong  affinity  for  water,  absorbs  it 
from  the  air  with  avidity,  and  not  only  increases  the  weight  of  the  powders  by  so 
much  water,  but  also  assists,  by  this  moisture,  the  decomposition  of  the  valuable  hypo- 
chlorite of  lime.  . 

Powders  which  are  moist,  without  being  commercially  "in  damaged  condition," 

8 


58 


MANUFACTURE^  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


show  thereby  the  presence  of  a  large  quantity  of  free  chloride  of  calcium,  and  are, 
therefore,  of  poor  quality. 

The  light  has  no  influence  on  dry  powders,  but  it  transforms  the  valuable  hypo- 
chlorite of  lime  in  liquid  solution  into  chlorite  of  lime  (CaOjClOs)  and  chloride  of 
calcium  (CaCl),  both  of  which  have  no  bleaching  qualities.  It  is  therefore  of  im- 
portance that  bleach-solution  should  be  kept  in  the  dark. 

The  air  acts  directly  on  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  by  uniting  its  carbonic  acid 
with  the  lime,  setting  the  hypochlorous  acid  free,  which  in  its  turn  separates  into  its 
elements  chlorine  and  oxygen.  This  is  the  source  of  the  strong  chlorine  smell  which 
is  always  noticed  in  the  presence  of  bleaching  powders,  and  affects  very  violently  our 
respiratory  organs.  Heat  greatly  promotes  these  changes,  and  especially  the  escape 
of  chlorine  gas. 

Bleaching  powders  should  be  packed  so  that  neither  air  nor  moisture  can  reach 
them.  They  are  generally  shipped  in  casks,  sometimes,  from  short-sighted  economy, 
made  of  soft  wood. 

But  even  if  the  best  hard  wood  is  used,  the  air  and  moisture  find  access,  as  the 
changes  of  temperature  cause  cracks,  through  the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the 
staves. 

The  pores  of  the  wood  are  alone  suificient  for  communication  between  the  inside 
and  the  air.  A  piece  of  iron  lying  in  a  store-room  with  bleach  casks  soon  shows 
rust  on  its  surface, — an  evidence  of  the  presence  of  chlorine  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  staves  are  so  strongly  impregnated  with  the  gas  that,  if  burned  under  the 
boiler,  the  iron  must  in  course  of  time  suffer  from  it. 

The  lining  of  casks  with  good  tough  paper  is  a  protection  for  the  powders,  but 
we  would  suggest  that  they  should  be  covered  inside  with  pitch,  closing  the  pores, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  influence  of  chlorine. 

Dishonest  dealers  not  only  sometimes  sell  wet  and  damaged  bleaching  powders 
as  good  ones,  but  even  take  advantage  of  the  increase  in  weight,  by  whitewashing  the 
original  weight-marks  and  putting  the  new  real  weight  in  their  place. 

Purchasers  should  refuse  any  casks  on  which  the  original  marks  have  been 
effaced  or  covered. 

Bleaching  powders  must  be  stored  in  dry  and  moderately  cool  rooms ;  but  they 
deteriorate  with  time,  no  matter  how  well  they  are  taken  care  of. 

The  further  a  paper-mill  is  distant  from  where  the  powders  are  manufactured, 
the  more  care  is  to  be  taken  to  buy  only  the  best  brands,  to  get  them  with  the  least 
possible  delay,  and  without  allowing  them  to  be  stored  anywhere.  If  purchased  from 
dealers,  the  preference  is  to  be  given  to  casks  yet  on  board  or  just  landed,  as  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  how  old  they  may  be  if  taken  from  a  warehouse. 

35.  Chemical  Action  of  Bleaching  Powders. — Dry  chlorine  gas  may  be  ever  so  long- 
in  contact  with  a  colored  rag ;  it  has  no  effect  on  it ;  but  as  soon  as  water  is  added  it 
begins  to  bleach  or  destroy  the  color. 

The  action  of  the  chlorine  is  due  to  its  strong  affinity  for  hydrogen.  Whenever 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


59 


chlorine  meets  a  composition  of  which  hydrogen  forms  a  part,  it  draws  the  latter 
irresistibly  towards  itself,  combining  with  it  to  produce  hydrochlorous  acid,  CIH. 

If  both  these  gases,  however,  are  put  together  in  a  bottle,  they  remain  separate 
as  long  as  they  are  kept  in  the  dark,  but  as  soon  as  light  is  admitted  they  unite  with 
such  a  force  that  an  explosion  is  heard. 

It  is  daily  demonstrated  by  bleaching  in  rotary  boilers  that  light  is  not  indis- 
pensable for  bleaching,  but  the  experiment  mentioned  seems  to  indicate  that  its 
presence  is  at  least  useful. 

Water  is  a  union  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  O  with  one  of  hydrogen  H,  and  forms 
with  chlorine  hydrochloric  acid  HCl  and  free  oxygen  O. 

CI  +  HO  =  HCl  +  O  • 

Chlorine.   Water.    Hydrochloric  Oxygen. 

acid. 

This  oxygen,  at  the  moment  when  it  emerges  from  its  connection  with  other 
elements,  or,  scientifically  expressed,  in  its  nascent  state,  destroys  all  the  colors  which 
have  hydrogen  in  their  composition,  or  admit  of  a  higher  oxidization.  The  addition 
of  this  oxygen  to  such  colors  compels  new  formations,  in  which  it  is  mostly  united 
with  hydrogen  as  water. 

Vegetable  fibres  and  all  colors  of  organic  origin  are  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  sometimes  nitrogen ;  they  cede  their  hydrogen  to  oxygen  in  the  nas- 
cent state,  and  are  thus  decomposed  and  discolored. 

Oxygen  which  has  been  produced  in  the  ordinary  way  has  no  bleaching  power 
whatever,  but  if  exposed  to  the  continued  influence  of  the  electric  spark  it  acquires  a 
strong  and  characteristic  odor  and  different  qualities  from  those  it  had  before.  This 
discovery  was  made  by  Professor  Schoenbein,  and  the  oxygen  in  that  condition  called 
by  him  "  ozone,"  which  is  the  Greek  word  for  "  smell."  It  has  strong  bleaching 
properties,  and  it  is  supposed  that  oxygen  in  its  nascent  state  has  the  qualities  of 
ozone.  The  colors  always  succumb  first  to  its  attacks,  but  if  the  bleaching  is  con- 
tinued, or  an  excess  of  chlorine  used,  the  fibres  will  also  be  destroyed. 

A  solution  of  bleaching  powders  in  water  contains  all  their  hypochlorite  of  lime 
and  chloride  of  calcium,  of  which  the  hypochlorous  acid  is  the  only  valuable  part. 
Its  component  elements,  chlorine  and  oxygen,  form  a  very  loose  partnership,  and  the 
connection  with  lime  is  hardly  any  more  binding.  This  is  so  much  so  that  the 
chlorine  in  the  hypochlorous  acid  acts  nearly  as  if  it  were  simj^ly  dissolved  in  water. 
It  only  takes  a  longer  time  to  drive  it  out  or  exhaust  it,  as  a  certain,  however  weak, 
resistance  must  be  overcome. 

The  chlorine  in  the  chloride  of  lime  can  be  driven  out  by  acids,  and,  like  the 
chlorine  which  has  been  obtained  from  the  hypochlorite  of  lime,  decomposes  water, 
but  the  resulting  oxygen  is  taken  up  by  the  calcium  to  form  lime  or  oxide  of  calcium. 


CaCl  +  SOg.HO 

Chloride  of  Sulphuric 
calcium.  acid. 


=  CaO,S03  +  HCl 

Sulphate  of  Hydrochloric 
lime.  acid. 


60 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


The  chloride  of  lime  can  therefore  not  be  made  available  for  bleaching. 

Each  atom  of  chlorine  in  hypochlorous  acid  not  only  liberates  one  atom  of 
oxygen  from  water,  but  the  atom  of  oxygen  with  which  the  chlorine  had  been  united 
is  also  set  free,  so  that  for  every  atom  of  hypochlorous  acid  two  of  bleaching  oxygen 
are  obtained. 

CIO  +  HO  =  HCl  +  20 

Every  two  atoms  of  chlorine  which  are  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  bleach- 
ing powders  must  waste  one  in  useless  chloride  of  calcium,  but  the  other  atom  of 
chlorine  in  the  hypochlorite  of  calcium  makes  up  for  it  by  developing  double  its 
quantity  of  bleaching  oxygen. 

Bleaching  powders,  if  of  full  strength,  thus  return  one  atom  of  bleaching  oxygen 
for  every  atom  of  chlorine  which  has  been  used  in  its  preparation,  and  may  simply 
be  considered  a  convenient  vehicle  or  reservoir  for  the  transportation  of  chlorine  gas. 

36.  Strength  and  Test  of  Bleaching  Powders. — The  atomic  weights  or  equivalents 
of  the  three  elements,  supposed  to  form  the  principal  part  of  the  bleaching  powders 
in  equal  parts,  are — 

Calcium,    .    .    .    .    Ca    =  20 
Chlorine,   ....    CI    =  35.46 
Oxygen,    .    .    .    .    O     =  8 

63.46 

or  altogether  63.46,  of  which  about  56  per  cent,  are  chlorine. 

In  this  calculation  the  free  chloride  of  lime,  hydrate  of  lime,  and  the  inevitable 
and  variable  quantity  of  water,  are  not  taken  into  account,  and  reduce  the  percentage 
of  free  chlorine  considerably.  Only  one-half  of  all  this  chlorine,  or  the  part  which 
is  contained  in  the  hypochlorous  acid,  is  free  chlorine,  but  as  every  atom  of  it  develops 
two  of  bleaching  oxygen,  it  is  counted  double. 

Thirty-two  per  cent,  is  considered  the  standard  strength  by  the  trade,  and  pow- 
ders testing  less  should  not  be  accepted  as  good  delivery.  Powders  of  38  to  39  per 
cent,  are  the  strongest  usually  offered. 

Since  their  value  is  altogether  based  on  the  hypochlorous  acid  or  "  free  chlorine  " 
which  they  contain,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  ascertain  its  quantity. 

Every  manufacturer  of  powders  sends  with  the  invoice  a  certificate  stating  that 
samples  of  the  lot  contained  a  certain  percentage  of  free  chlorine  on  a  certain  day 
before  it  was  shipped.  Supposing  that  this  test  was  correct,  there  is  no  guarantee  in  it 
that  since  they  were  made,  and  before  the  purchaser  received  the  goods,  a  large  portion, 
perhaps  most,  of  the  free  chlorine  may  not  have  escaped.  It  becomes,  therefore, 
necessary  to  test  again. 

There  are  in  every  large  city  analytical  chemists  who  make  these  tests  their 
business,  and  if  they  are  able  and  honest  men  it  is  better  for  the  purchaser  to  trust 
them  with  the  examination  than  to  make  it  himself.  The  chemist  has  more  expe- 
rience and  all  the  requirements  for  the  work,  and  his  testimony  as  that  of  a  third 
disinterested  party  is  of  value. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  BRAINING,  ANB  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  61 


Some  manufacturers  may,  however,  for  their  own  experience  and  instruction, 
prefer  to  make  the  tests  themselves,  and  for  their  benefit  we  will  describe  the  process 
which  is  at  present  considered  the  most  convenient  and  reliable  one. 

First  weigh  off  a  quantity  of  the  bleaching  powders,  say,  for  instance,  five 
grammes ;  dissolve  it  in  water,  and  separate  the  liquid  from  the  insoluble  part  by 
filtration.  The  insoluble  part  consists  of  hydrate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  CaO,HO  and 
CaOjCOj,  and  remains  on  the  filter.  Wash  it  out,  and  add  enough  water  to  fill  1000 
cubic  centimetres  or  any  other  fixed  volumes  with  it.  - 

Secondly,  a  solution  of  arsenious  acid  in  hydrochloric  acid  is  to  be  made.  The 
arsenious  acid  must  be  carefully  weighed ;  and  we  will  suppose  that  2970  grammes 
have  been  used.  Add  again  enough  water  to  fill  another  1000  cubic  centimetres  or 
volumes  with  this  solution,  which  may  be  bottled  for  many  such  tests  until  used  up. 

Pour,  for  our  example,  50  cubic  centimetres  of  it  into  a  good-sized  beaker-glass, 
and  add  enough  tincture  of  indigo  (a  solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid)  to  color  the 
liquid  blue. 

Drop  slowly  into  this  blue  solution,  from  a  graduated  burette,  enough  of  the 
liquid  made  from  the  bleaching  ]30wders  to  destroy  the  blue  color.  As  soon  as  it  dis- 
appears, stop  and  read  off  how  much  of  the  chlorine  solution  has  been  used. 

This  test  is  based  on  the  bleaching  or  oxidizing  power  of  the  free  chlorine  or 
hypochlorous  acid  in  the  powders.  The  hypochlorous  acid  in  contact  with  water  and 
vegetable  matters  develoj)S  oxygen,  which  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  arsenious  acid. 
As  soon  as  all  the  arsenious  acid  (AsOs)  l^as  been  thereby  transformed  into  arsenic 
acid  (AsOj), 

AsO,  +  HO  +  CIO  =  AsO,  +  HCl, 

Arsenious       Water.    Hypochlorous     Arsenic  Hydrochloric 
acid.  acid.  acid.  acid. 

the  free  chlorine  destroys  the  blue  indigo  color,  and  indicates  that  as  much  oxygen 
has  been  set  free  as  the  arsenious  acid  could  absorb. 

The  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  of  arsenious  acid  is 

Arsenic,  As    =  75 

Oxygen,  0  =  8  O,    =  24 

AsO,    =  99 

Arsenious  acid  (AsOa)  requires  two  atoms  of  oxygen,  or  two  of  chlorine  in  the 
powders,  to  oxidize  it  into  arsenic  acid  (AsOg). 

The  atomic  weight  of  chlorine  is  35.5,  and  of  two  atoms  2  x  35.5  =  71. 

The  50  cubic  centimetres  of  the  arsenious  solution  represent  of  2.970  or 
0.1485  grammes,  and  the  quantity  of  chlorine  which  has  been  used  for  them  stands 
to  0.1485  in  the  same  proportion  as  its  atomic  weight  71  to  that  of  arsenious  acid  99. 

0.1485x  71  ...^^ 
 =  0.1065  grammes 

is  therefore  the  weight  of  chlorine  which  has  been  used  to  oxidize  the  0.1485 
grammes  of  arsenious  acid. 


62 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Supposing,  now,  that  of  the  5  grammes  or  1000  cubic  centimetres  of  bleaching 
powders,  62.5  cubic  centimetres  or 

5x62.5_. 

 0.3125  grammes 

1000  ^ 

have  been  used,  they  contain  0.1065  grammes  or 

^'"^^^^  =  34.08  per  ceut.  of  bleaching;  chlorine. 
0.3125  * 

To  make  these  tests  correctly,  not  only  good  scales,  pure  chemicals,  distilled 
water,  &c.,  but  also  careful  handling,  such  as  can  only  be  acquired  by  experience,  are 
necessary. 

37.  Bleach  Solution. — The  powders  always  contain  an  insoluble  portion  of 
hydrate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  lime,  stone,  and  dirt,  which  would  remain  mixed  with 
the  pulp  if  the  powders  were  used  on  it  directly.  By  bleaching  with  a  solution 
these  impurities  are  kept  out. 

As  chlorine  attacks  and  destroys  iron  or  wood,  these  solutions  have  to  be  made 
either  in  wooden  tubs  lined  with  lead,  or  better,  in  cisterns  built  of  brick  and  cement, 
in  the  manner  described  hereafter  for  drainers. 

In  mills  where  large  quantities  of  powders  are  used — say,  for  instance,  800  to 
1000  pounds  every  one  or  two  days — these  cisterns  should  be  large  enough  to  dissolve 
the  contents  of  a  hogshead.  The  handling  and  weighing  or  measuring  of  these  pow- 
ders is  extremely  disagreeable  and  unhealthy  ;  they  pervade  the  atmosphere,  and  thus 
enter  the  resj^iratory  organs,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  affected  by  them.  A  large 
sponge  tied  before  mouth  and  nose  gives  only  imperfect  j^rotection  to  the  operative, 
and  it  is  pardonable  if  he  does  the  work  in  a  hurried  and  perhaps  imperfect  manner. 
The  gross  weight  and  the  tare  are  marked  on  every  hogshead,  and  may  be  verified 
by  direct  weighing  before  it  is  opened.  On  those  of  English  manufacture  the  weight 
is  represented  by  three  figures,  the  first  of  which  gives  the  number  of  quintals  equal 
to  112  lbs.,  the  second  the  number  of  fourths  of  quintals  or  28  lbs.,  and  the  third  the 
number  of  single  pounds.  Gross  weight  and  tare  stand  above  one  another,  in  the 
following  manner : 

8,  3,  19. 
1,      0,  23. 

The  upper  figures  of  this  example,  representing  the  gross  weight,  sum  up  to : 

8  X  112  =  896 
3  X  28  =  84 
1    X     19    =  19 


The  lower  figures  or  tare  are 


999 

1  X  112  =  112 
1    X     23    =  23 


and  the  net  weight,  999  — 135  =  864  pounds. 


135 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DB AIMING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  63 


If  the  cistern  is  calculated  to  dissolve  1000  pounds  of  powders,  and  the  hogs- 
head contains  only  700  pounds,  the  quantity  of  water  used  with  it  must  he  reduced 
in  proportion,  or  to  /g,  so  that  the  strength  of  the  liquor  may  be  as  uniform  as 
possible. 

Two  cisterns  a  a  of  about  8  feet  diameter,  as  nearly  circular  as  possible,  and  5 
feet  deep,  will  be  sufficient  for  this  purpose ;  they  must  be  furnished  with  iron  or 
brass  agitators,  moved  by  belts  and  cog-wheels,  as  represented,  at  q\  of  the  real  size 
or  inch  per  foot,  by  section  and  plan,  in  Figs.  38  and  39.  One  or  two  horizontal 
arms  c,  with  about  six  to  eight  1  inch  rods  of  2  feet  length  fastened  upright  in  them, 
and  reaching  within  2  inches  from  the  bottom,  turning  about  20  times  per  minute, 
make  up  the  agitator.  The  hogshead  having  been  emptied  into  one  of  the  cisterns, 
the  latter  is  filled  up  with  water  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  powders,  and  the 
agitator  set  going  by  means  of  the  clutch  and  lever  d.  Heat  accelerates  the  solution, 
but  facilitates  the  escape  of  chlorine  gas.  Though  a  steam-pipe  may  be  provided,  it 
is  advisable  not  to  use  it,  except  to  make  the  water  lukewarm  in  winter.  After  the 
agitator  has  been  running  about  three  to  six  hours,  it  must  be  stopped  to  let  the  lime 
and  impurities  settle  to  the  bottom.  As  soon  as  the  liquid  is  perfectly  clear  it  is 
drawn  off  through  pipes  e  and  r  into  a  receiver  b.  The  j^ipe  f,  which  ends  with  a 
stop-cock,  is  fastened  into  the  brick  wall  of  the  cistern  a,  and  conveys  the  solution 
into  the  receiver ;  it  connects  with  e,  where  it  reaches  the  inside  of  the  cistern  by 
means  of  a  joint,  which  is  represented  at  |  of  the  real  size,  or  I  inch  per  inch,  by 
views  and  section,  in  Figs.  40,  41,  and  42. 

This  joint  consists  of  two  elbows  g  and  h  fitted  into  one  another,  like  a  valve 
and  its  seat,  and  held  together  by  the  set-screw  i.  It  is  fastened  to  the  cast  plate  l 
by  a  nipple  k,  which  is  screwed  into  it,  and  with  which  elbow  g  and  pipe  f  are  also 
connected.  The  form  of  the  casting  l,  with  its  two  projections  holding  the  joint,  can 
be  seen  from  the  drawing ;  it  is  held  to  the  wall  by  bolts,  and  can  be  renewed  if 
necessary.  The  pipe  e  can  be  turned  up  and  down  in  this  elbow-joint  so  that  its 
inlet  stands  at  any  height  of  the  cistern,  and  the  clear  liquor  can  thus  be  drawn  off 
to  any  desired  point.  It  is  held  or  suspended  in  these  positions  by  a  rod  or  chain 
fastened  to  its  upper  end.  While  the  agitator  is  in  motion  the  pipe  e  stands  upright, 
close  to  the  wall,  the  revolving  arms  not  being  long  enough  to  touch  it. 

The  casting  l,  elbows,  and  pipes  are  mostly  of  cast  iron,  and  must  be  often 
renewed.  Brass  would  Avithstand  the  action  of  the  chlorine,  and  probably  prove 
cheaper  in  the  long  run.    The  outside  pipe  f  may  be  a  lead  one. 

After  the  clear  liquor  has  all  been  drawn  off  by  gradual  lowering  of  the  pipe  e, 
the  cistern  is  filled  up  again  with  water,  another  solution  is  made  like  the  first  one, 
and  also  emptied  into  the  receiver  b. 

While  the  second  or  weak  extract  is  made  in  one  cistern,  a  new  portion  of  pow- 
ders is  dissolved  in  the  other.  Thus  there  are  always  a  weak  and  a  strong  solution 
on  hand  at  the  same  time,  and  good  care  must  be  taken  to  empty  them  together  into 
the  receiver,  as  otherwise  the  liquor  would  not  be  of  the  regular  strength. 


64 


MANTJFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  impurities  or  sediment  remaining  on  the  bottom  of  the  cisterns  are  washed 
out  through  the  large  lead  pipe  m,  and  carried  off  by  the  spout  n. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  BBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  65 


The  liquor  in  the  receiver  can  be  kept  at  the  regular  strength  by  diluting  each 
solution  until  it  shows  the  prescribed  specific  gravity  on  the  hydrometer. 

The  cisterns  and  receiver  should  be  kept  as  much  as  possible  in  the  dark,  and  the 
solution  not  exposed  to  the  air  any  longer  than  can  be  helped,  as  it  continually  loses 
in  strength  under  the  influence  of  light  and  air. 


Fig.  40. 


38.  Strength  of  the  Solution. — Chlorine  is  much  heavier  than  water;  every 
additional  quantity  of  it  in  a  solution  increases  the  specific  gravity — that  is,  makes  it 
so  much  heavier  than  the  same  volume  of  water. 

The  hydrometers  used  by  the  paper-maker  sink  to  zero  in  water ;  but  if  im- 
mersed in  heavier  liquids,  they  show  more  of  their  length  above  the  surface,  because, 
like  all  other  solid  bodies,  they  can  only  displace  a  quantity  of  liquid  the  weight  of 
which  is  equal  to  their  own.  Hydrochloric  acid  and  chloride  of  lime  have  no  bleach- 
ing power,  but  increase  (in  a  much  smaller  proportion  than  chlorine)  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  solution,  and  the  hydrometer  does  not  therefore  give  a  correct  test.  It 
is,  however,  the  only  handy  one  we  have,  and  practically  sufficient. 

Whichever  of  the  different  hydrometers,  named  after  their  designers,  is  used, 
the  liquor  in  the  receiver  should  show  always  the  same  number  of  degrees,  so  that 
the  same  quantity  may  be  expected  to  give  the  same  result. 

After  the  pulp  has  been  washed  and  transformed  into  half  stuff"  in  the  engine,  a 
certain  quantity  of  liquor  is  drawn  from  the  receiver  b  through  the  pipe  o,  and  added 
to  it. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  bleach-liquor  must  be  kept  on  hand,  exposed  to  the 

9 


66  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

*  * 

air  and  perhaps  to  the  light,  and  an  inevitable  loss  of  bleaching  chlorine  is  thereby 
sustained.  We  j)refer,  especially  for  rags  which  require  comparatively  small  amounts 
of  bleaching  materials,  the  following  method : 

39.  Preparation  of  a  Fresh  Bleach  Solution  for  every  Engine  of  Pulp. — Every  paper- 
mill  uses  oil,  and  has  consequently  empty  oil-barrels  of  but  little  value.  Take  one 
of  these,  and  cut  it  off  about  8  inches  from  the  head  and  parallel  with  it,  so  that  it 
will  make  a  good-sized  tub.  If  a  vessel,  which  chlorine  does  not  affect,  is  preferred, 
a  wooden  box  lined  with  lead  answers  the  purpose.  Set  this  box  or  tub  on  a  plat- 
form close  to  the  engine,  and  introduce  a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  a  faucet, 
through  which  the  liquor  can  be  drawn  off. 

Put  the  quantity  of  powders  required  to  bleach  one  engine  of  rags  (4  to  10 
pounds  per  100  pounds  of  paper)  into  the  box ;  fill  up  with  water,  and  make  a  solu- 
tion by  stirring  it  with  a  paddle.  The  faucet  being  high  enough  above  the  bottom, 
the  clear  liquor  can,  after  it  has  had  time  to  rest,  be  drawn  off  into  the  engine  with- 
out disturbing  the  sediment.  The  dregs  are  taken  out,  dissolved  in  another  barrel, 
and  the  weak  solution  obtained  from  them  is  added  directly  to  the  pulp  in  the  next 
engine. 

Whenever  a  new  hogshead  of  powders  is  opened,  the  first  liquor  is  made  with  the 
usual  quantity,  and  must  be  tested  with  the  hydrometer.  The  test  indicates  whether 
the  powders  are  of  the  usual  strength,  or  if  the  quantity  used  for  each  engine  must 
be  larger  or  smaller  to  obtain  a  solution  of  the  usual  strength.  A  barrel  like  the  one 
described,  of  about  25  to  30  gallons  capacity,  containing  16  to  20  pounds  of  good 
bleaching  powders,  will  give  a  liquor  testing  6  to  8  degrees  of  Baume's  hydrometer. 

.  This  is  certainly  the  cheapest  way  of  dissolving  and  using  bleaching  powders, 
inasmuch  as  it  requires  no  room  and  expense  for  bleaching-tanks,  furnishes  always  a 
fresh  solution,  exhausts  the  powders  thoroughly,  and  gives  the  control  of  the  whole 
process  to  the  engineer,  who  is  the  jjroper  man  to  have  it. 

40.  Vitriol. — Hypochlorous  acid  has,  as  said  before,  only  a  slight  affinity  for 
lime,  and  is  easily  driven  from  it  by  any  stronger  acid,  for  instance,  sulphuric  acid. 
It  is  true  that  the  chlorine  exhausts  itself  by  bleaching  the  pulp  slowly  without  acid, 
if  enough  time  is  allowed  for  it ;  but  if  the  rags  are  very  dark  or  coarse,  and  re- 
quire much  bleaching,  the  time  and  consequently  the  number  or  capacity  of  the 
pulp-receivers  which  would  be  needed,  increase  so  much  that  the  use  of  acid  becomes 
a  necessity. 

The  sulphuric  acid  forms  sulphate  of  lime  with  the  lime  formerly  connected  with 
the  hypochlorous  acid,  and  the  chlorine  remains  in  the  solution  as  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  process  is  represented  by  the  following  equation : 

SO3HO    +    CaOClO    =    CaOSO.,    -f    HCl    +  20 

Sulphuric  Hypochlorite  of  Sulphate  of       Hydrochloric  Oxygen, 

acid.  lime.  lime.  acid. 

The  two  atoms  of  oxygen  appearing  in  it  are  used  up  in  bleaching. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  BBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  67 


The  lime  to  which  the  sulphuric  acid  allies  itself,  joins  the  hydrochloric  acid 
if  the  stronger  sulphuric  acid  is  not  present.  It  forms  with  it  chloride  of  calcium, 
according  to  the  following,  equation  : 

CaO    +    HCl    =   CaCl    +    HO  , 

.    Lime.       Hydrochloric      Chloride  of  Water, 
acid.  calcium. 

The  chloride  of  calcium  is  harmless,  but  the  free  hydrochloric  acid  acts  on  the 
pulp,  and  injures  the  color  by  turning  it  gray  or  yellow. 

Bleach-liquor  which  has  once  been  treated  with  vitriol,  and  consequently  has 
considerable  quantities  of  free  hydrochloric  acid,  HCl,  in  solution,  should  not  be 
again  used  on  white  pulp,  or  for  the  preparation  of  fresh  solution.  It  is  better  to  let 
it  act  by  itself  on  unbleached  puljD,  which  it  will  whiten  by  means  of  any  remaining 
free  chlorine. 

Paper-makers  who  work  the  better  grades  of  rags,  and  are  supplied  with  plenty 
of  drainer  room,  bleach  generally  without  acid,  but  let  the  contents  of  the  bleaching- 
engine  remain  in  the  drainers  for  24  to  48  hours  before  allowing  the  liquid  to  drain 
off.  This  waste  bleach  solution  may  be  used  for  the  preparation  of  a  new  one,  but 
in  mills  where  the  quality  of  the  paper  is  more  important  than  anything  else,  and 
where  only  white  rags  are  used,  as,  for  instance,  in  our  fine  writing-paper  mills,  it  is 
allowed  to  run  away. 

Sulphuric  acid  or  sulphate  of  water,  commonly  called  oil  of  vitriol,  is,  if  pure,  a 
dense,  colorless,  inodorous  liquid  of  an  oleaginous  appearance  and  strongly  corrosive. 
When  pure,  and  as  concentrated  as  possible,  its  specific  gravity  is  1.845,  and  it  con- 
tains then  about  18  per  cent,  of  water.  The  commercial  acid  is  seldom  of  full 
strength,  has  generally  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.8433,  and  contains  about  22  per 
cent,  of  water. 

The  quantity  of  impurities  in  it  can  easily  be  ascertained  by  evaporating  some 
of  the  acid.  If  more  than  a  trifling  quantity  of  solids  remains  behind,  the  vitriol  is 
not  of  good  quality. 

The  pure  hydrated  acid  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.845  contains  one  atom  of  dry 
acid  to  one  of  water,  SO3HO. 


40 
9 

49 

which  brings  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrated  acid  or  sulphate  of  water  to  49. 

The  ordinary  commercial  acid  (specific  gravity  1.8433)  consists  of  one  equivalent 
of  dry  acid  and  one  and  a  quarter  of  water. 

The  specific  gravity  of  any  sulphuric  acid  is  easily  found  with  the  aid  of  the 
hydrometer. 


The  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  of  sulphur  is  16 

"  oxygen  8 
"     hydrogen  1 

And  the  relative  weight  of  dry  acid  SO,  =  16  +  3  X8  = 

water  HO     =1  +  8  = 


68  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAFEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


Table  for  Liquids  Heavier  than  Water :  giving  the  Specific  Weights  Corresponding  with  the  Degrees  of 

Baume's  Hydrometer. 


Degree  of 
Hydrometer. 

Specific  Gravity. 
By  Baume. 

Degree  of 
Hydrometer. 

Specific  Gravity. 
By  Baume. 

Degree  of 
Hyd  ronieter. 

Specific  Gravity. 
By  Baume. 

Degree  of 
Hydrometer. 

Specific  Gravity. 
By  SEiume. 

0 

1 

0000 

19 

1 

1504 

38 

1 

3559 

57 

1.6446 

1 

1 

0070 

20 

1 

1596 

39 

1 

.3686 

58 

1.6632 

2 

1 

0141 

21 

1 

1690 

40 

1 

.3815 

59 

1.6823 

3 

1 

0213 

22 

1 

1785 

41 

1 

.3947 

60 

1.7019 

4 

1 

0286 

23 

1 

1882 

42 

1 

.4082 

61 

1.7220 

5 

1 

0360 

24 

1 

.1981 

43 

1 

4219 

62 

1.7427 

6 

1 

0435 

25 

1 

2082 

44 

] 

.4359 

63 

1.7640 

1 

1 

0511 

26 

1 

2184 

45 

1 

4501 

64 

1.7858 

8 

1 

0588 

27 

1 

2288 

46 

1 

4645 

65 

1.8082 

9 

1 

0666 

28 

1 

.2394 

47 

1 

4792 

66 

1.8312 

10 

1 

0745 

29 

1 

2502 

48 

1 

4942 

67 

1.8548 

11 

1 

0825 

30 

1 

2612 

49 

1 

5096 

68 

1.8790 

12 

1 

0906 

31 

1 

2724 

50 

1 

.5253 

69 

1.9038 

13 

1 

0988 

32 

1 

2838 

51 

1 

.5413 

70 

1.9291 

14 

1 

1071 

33 

1 

.2954 

52 

1 

5576 

71 

1.9548 

15 

.1155 

34 

1 

3072 

58 

1 

5742 

72 

1.9809 

16 

1 

1240 

35 

1 

3190 

54 

1 

.5912 

73 

2.0073 

11 

1 

1326 

36 

1 

.3311 

55 

1 

.6086 

74 

2.0340 

18 

1 

.1414 

37 

1 

.3434 

56 

1 

.6264 

75 

2.0610 

Table  by  Ure :  giving  the  Weight  of  Hydrated  Acid  SO-^iHO)  and  that  of  Dry  Acid  SO^  in  One  Hun- 
dred Weight  of  Commercial  Acid  of  a  Specific  Gravity,  which  has  been  Found  by  the  Aid  of  Baume's 
Hydrometer  and  the  Preceding  Table. 


Sp.  Gr. 

Liquid 
Acid  in 
100. 

Dry  Acid 
in  100. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Liquid 
Acid  in 
100. 

Dry  Acid 
in  100. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Liquid 
Acid  in 
100. 

Dry  Acid 
in  100. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Liquid 
Acid  in 
100. 

Dry  Acid 
in  100. 

1.8485 

100 

81.54 

1.6520 

75 

61.15 

1.3884 

50 

40.77 

1.1792 

25 

20.38 

1.8475 

99 

80.72 

1.6415 

74 

60.34 

1.3788 

49 

39.95 

1.1706 

24 

19.57 

1.8460 

98 

79.90 

1.6321 

73 

59.52 

1.3697 

48 

39.14 

1.1626 

23 

18.75 

1.8439 

97 

79.09 

1.6204 

72 

58.71 

1.3612 

47 

38.32 

1.1549 

22 

17.94 

1.8410 

96 

78.28 

1.6090 

71 

57.89 

1.3530 

46 

37.51 

1.1480 

21 

17.12 

1.8376 

95 

77.46 

1.5975 

70 

57.08 

1.3440 

45 

36.69 

1.1410 

20 

16.31 

1.8336 

94 

76.65 

1.5868 

69 

56.26 

1.3345 

44 

.35.88 

1.1330 

19 

15.49 

1.8200 

93 

75.83 

1.5760 

68 

55.45 

1..3255 

43 

35.06 

1.1246 

18 

14.68 

1.8283 

92 

75.02 

1.5648 

67 

54.63 

1.3165 

42 

34.25 

1.1165 

17 

13.86 

1.8179 

91 

74.20 

1.5503 

66 

53.82 

1.3080 

41 

33.43 

1.1090 

16 

13.05 

1.8115 

90 

73.39 

1.5390 

65 

53.00 

1.2999 

40 

32.61 

1.1019 

15 

12.23 

1.8043 

89 

72.57 

1.5280 

64 

52.18 

1.2913 

39 

31.80 

1.0953 

14 

11.41 

1.7962 

88 

71.75 

1.5170 

63 

51.37 

1.2826 

38 

30.98 

1.0887 

13 

10.60 

1.7870 

87 

70.94 

1.5066 

62 

50.55 

1.2740 

37 

30.17 

1.0809 

12 

9.78 

1.7774 

86 

70.12 

1.4960 

61 

49.74 

1.2654 

36 

29.35 

1.0743 

11 

8.97 

1.7673 

85 

69.31 

1.4860 

60 

48.92 

1.2572 

35 

28.54 

1.0682 

10 

8.15 

1.7570 

84 

68.49 

1.4760 

59 

48.11 

1.2490 

34 

27,72 

1.0614 

9 

7.34 

1.7465 

83 

67.68 

1.4660 

58 

47.29 

1.2409 

33 

26.91 

1.0544 

8 

6.52 

1.7360 

82 

66.86 

1.4560 

57 

46.48 

1.2334 

32 

26.09 

1.0477 

7 

5.71 

1.7245 

81 

66.05 

1.4460 

56 

45.66 

1.2260 

31 

25.28 

1.0405 

6 

4.89 

1.7120 

80 

65.23 

1.4360 

55 

44.85 

1.2184 

30 

24.46 

1.0336 

5 

4.08 

1.6993 

79 

64.42 

1.4265 

54 

44.03 

1.2108 

29 

23.65 

1.0268 

4 

3.26 

1.6870 

78 

63.60 

1.4170 

53 

43.22 

1.2032 

28 

22.83 

1.0206 

3 

2.446 

1.6750 

77 

62.78 

1.4073 

52 

42.40  i 

1.1956 

27 

22.01 

1.0140 

2 

1.63 

1.6630 

76 

61.97 

1.3977 

51 

41.58 

1.1876 

26 

21.20 

1.0074 

1 

0.8154 

WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


69 


Vitriol  is  commonly  shipped  in  large  glass  bottles,  holding  about  140  to  200 
pounds,  which  for  protection  are  boxed  up  in  wood,  and  called  carboys. 

Vitriol  should  never  be  used  otherwise  in  jmper-mills  than  in  a  very  diluted 
state,  but  the  mixture  with  water  must  be  made  with  some  caution.  It  attracts  water 
with  great  avidity,  and  must  therefore  be  kept  well  closed,  so  that  the  humidity  of  the 
air  cannot  weaken  it.  Water  and  vitriol  unite  with  such  violence  that  the  mixture,  if 
made  suddenl}^,  becomes  heated,  and  sometimes  is  sprinkled  about,  or  even  bursts  the 
vessel  in  which  it  is  contained.  Accidents  have  often  been  caused  by  pouring  a  large 
quantity  of  water  into  vitriol,  which  might  have  been  avoided  by  adding  the  acid  very 
gradually  to  the  water,  and  stirring  constantly  while  doing  so. 

After  the  bleach-solution  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  jiulp  during  not 
less  than  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  the  diluted  acid  is  slowly  added. 

If  poured  in  suddenly,  more  chlorine  is  developed  than  the  liquid  is  able  to  take 
up ;  the  surplus  escapes  into  the  air,  and  injures  the  lungs  of  the  workmen  instead  of 
bleaching  the  pulp. 

If  the  diluted  vitriol  is  kept  in  a  lead-lined  box  or  earthen  vessel  somewhere 
above  the  engine,  and  admitted  through  a  small  lead-jiipe  only,  it  will  be  impossible 
for  the  engineer  to  pour  it  in  too  fast. 

The  sulphuric  acid  takes  the  place  of  liypochlorous  acid  (which,  as  soon  as  dis- 
engaged, bleaches  the  pulp  in  the  manner  described),  and  forms  sulphate  of  lime, 
commonly  known  as  gypsum,  with  the  abandoned  consort  of  the  hy2)ochlorous  acid. 

One  atom  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  unites  with  one  atom  of  lime  and  forms  one  of 
sulphate  of  lime. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  bleaching  powders  of  35  per  cent,  produce  an  amount  of 
bleaching  oxygen  corresponding  with  or  equivalent  to  35  pounds  of  free  chlorine. 
That  quantity  of  chlorine  is  contained  in  the  powders,  but,  as  has  been  shown  before, 
one-half  of  it  is  quite  inactive,  as  chloride  of  calcium,  CaCl,  and  the  other  half  as 
hypochlorite  of  lime,  CaO,C10,  sets  free  two  atoms  of  bleaching  oxygen  for  every  one 
of  chlorine. 

While,  therefore,  the  bleaching  power,  or  a  quantity  of  oxygen,  corresponding 
with  35  pounds  of  free  chlorine,  is  really  furnished,  it  is  done  by  only  one-half  of 
that  amount  in  the  hypochlorous  acid,  CIO,  equal  to  17i  pounds. 

It  is  not  correct  to  say  that  powders  of  35  per  cent,  contain  that  quantity  of  free 
chlorine,  though  the  171  per  cent,  are  sufficient  to  produce  an  amount  of  bleaching 
oxygen  corresponding  with  35  per  cent.  To  disengage  from  the  hypochlorous  acid 
of  100  pounds  of  powders  the  17^  pounds  of  chlorine  which  form  its  basis,  one  atom 
of  dry  sulphuric  acid,  or  one  atom  of  its  basis  sulphur  is  required  for  every  atom  of 
the  basis  chlorine. 

One  hundred  jDounds  of  commercial  vitriol  of  60  degrees  Baume,  corresponding 
(see  table  on  page  68)  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.8312,  contain,  according  to  our 
second  table  (page  68)  about  76.00  per  cent,  of  dry  acid.  Dry  sulphuric  acid  consists 
of  one  atom  of  sulphur  and  three  of  oxygen,  SO3 ;  the  atomic  weight  of  sulphur  is  16, 


70 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


and  that  of  three  atoms  of  oxygen,  3  times  8  or  24,  and  the  proportion  of  sulphur  in 
dry  acid  is  as  16  in  16  +  24  =  40  or  \%=  §  of  its  weight.  One  hundred  pounds  of 
commercial  acid,  equal  to  76.00  pounds  of  dry  acid,  contain,  therefore,  76  x  §  =  30§ 
pounds  of  suljohur. 

The  atomic  weight  of  sulphur  is  16  and  that  of  chlorine  35^,  which  means  that 
16  pounds  of  sulphur  will  replace  35 1  pounds  of  chlorine,  atom  for  atom. 

The  weight  of  sulphur  which  is  required  to  replace  17 1  pounds  of  chlorine,  atom 
for  atom,  is  therefore — 

17.5  X  16 

— 'zrz —  —  7.887  pounds  of  sulphur. 

oO.O 

\ 

One  hundred  pounds  of  commercial  vitriol  contain  30§  pounds  of  sulphur,  and 
the  7.887  pounds  of  sulphur,  equivalent  to  11  \  pounds  of  chlorine,  in  100  pounds  of 
powders,  are  the  basis  of — 

7.887  X  100  ^  2g  g  pounds  of  vitriol  of  66°. 
30.4 


This  means  that  25.8  pounds  of  ordinary  vitriol  will  force  out  of  100  jjounds  of 
good  powders  all  the  bleaching  power  contained  in  them,  or  one  joound  of  vitriol  to 
every  four  pounds  of  powders  is  the  largest  quantity  which  should  ever  be  used. 

Any  amount  above  this  proportion  would  be  wasted,  and,  if  increased  too  much, 
may  attack  the  fibres. 

It  has  been  shown  before  that  the  hypochlorous  acid  can  be  exhausted  without 
the  use  of  vitriol,  if  jilenty  of  time  is  given  to  the  process. 

The  quantity  of  vitriol  used  may  therefore  vary  between  nothing  and  one  pound 
for  every  four  pounds  of  j)0wders,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  stock,  available 
drainer-room  and  time. 

Some  paper-makers  prefer  to  use  alum  or  rather  aluminous  cake  in  place  of 
vitriol,  because  it  gives  the  same  result  without  any  loss  of  chlorine  gas. 

Aluminous  cake  or  alum  is  a  combination  of  alumina  (clay)  and  sulphuric  acid, 
and  as  it  takes  some  time  to  dissolve  and  decompose  it  in  the  pulp,  its  action  is  neces- 
sarily slow,  and  the  chlorine  is  produced  in  quantities,  which  can  be  gradually  used 
up  as  they  appear. 

The  sulphuric  acid  in  the  alum  is  alone  of  any  use,  and  the  best  brands  contain 
hardly  half  of  their  weight  in  vitriol.  Two  pounds  of  it  are  therefore  required,  to  do 
the  work  of  one  pound  of  pure  acid. 

The  market  price  of  alum  is  nearly  twice  that  of  vitriol,  and  four  dollars  will 
buy  only  one  dollar's  worth  of  acid  in  the  shape  of  sulphate  of  alumina. 

If  the  vitriol  is  diluted  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  gradually  added  to 
the  pulj),  it  will  not  be  found  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  costly  alum. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DRAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


71 


(c)  Draining. 

41.  Drainers. — As  soon  as  the  vitriol  has  had  time  to  become  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  pulp,  the  engine  may  be  emptied  into  a  drainer. 

These  receptacles  for  pulp  are  sometimes  of  wood,  and  will  then  soon  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  action  of  the  bleach-liquor.  Though  their  first  cost  may  be  low,  they 
will  prove  more  expensive  in  the  long  run  than  permanent  stone  ones,  and  can  only 
be  recommended  in  exceptional  cases. 

They  are  usually  built  on  one  of  the  two  following  distinct  plans,  and  should  be 
of  brick  and  cement  only. 

They  are  either  constructed  so  that  the  pulp  can  be  emptied  from  the  open  top, 
or  they  have  a  door  on  one  side,  near  the  bottom,  through  which  the  pulp  is  taken 
out. 

On  the  first  plan  they  are  situated  in  rows  near  the  beaters,  and  at  such  height 
that  the  jiulp  can  be  thrown  up  on  a  platform,  not  far  below  or  level  with  the  floor 
of  the  engine-room,  and  from  there  carried  directly  to  the  beaters  on  trucks.  As 
the  workman  must  lift  the  pulp  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  on  a  shovel,  their  depth 
is  limited  by  his  height,  or  about  5  to  6  feet. 

The  walls  are  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  a  body  of  liquid  as  large  as  the  drainers 
will  hold,  and  must  be  of  sufficient  thickness.  Any  wall  less  than  one  and  a  half 
brick,  or  about  14  to  15  inches  strong,  would  be  likely  to  spring  out  and  crack  under 
the  pressure  of  a  filled  drainer.  To  protect  the  top  of  these  walls  against  the  feet  of 
the  workmen  they  must  be  covered  with  a  framework  of  heavy  planks,  a  trifle  wider 
than  themselves. 

Cisterns  of  this  kind  are  sometimes  preferred,  because  the  pulji  can  be  taken  to 
the  beaters  without  the  aid  of  a  bolster,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  work 
of  the  elevator  is  not  entirely  saved,  but  done  by  men. 

In  large  mills,  where  bolsters  are  considered  as  indispensable  as  any  other  part 
of  the  machinery,  the  second  plan  is  more  frequently  adopted. 

The  drainers  are  then  not  restricted  in  height,  and  can  be  located  on  any  part 
of  the  floor  below  the  engines,  where  room  enough  can  be  obtained  to  run  a  truck 
alongside  of  them,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  away  the  pulp.  Their  walls  must  be 
stronger  as  they  are  higher,  and  should  never  be  less  than  two  bricks,  or  18  to  20 
inches  thick. 

In  one  of  the  largest  and  best  constructed  mills  in  America  there  is  one  such 
drainer,  standing  independently  by  itself,  under  every  engine.  Iron  girders  rest  on 
the  strong  brick  walls  of  these  drainers  and  carry  the  engines. 

The  doors  must  be  large  enough  for  a  man  to  pass  in  and  out,  their  cast-iron  or 
wooden  frames  are  walled  in,  and  they  are  fastened  outside  of  the  drainer-walls  in  a 
manner  convenient  for  opening  and  closing  them. 


72 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


To  be  convenient  for  emptying,  the  lower  door-sill  should  be  about  as  high 
above  the  floor  as  the  tops  of  the  truck  wagon  which  is  to  receive  the  j)ulp. 

42.  Construction  of  Drainers. — The  foundations  of  these  drainers,  and  especially 
of  their  side-walls,  must  be  solid  and  uniform,  as  the  walls  must  crack  if  they  settle 
more  in  one  place  than  in  another. 

Only  sound  brick  and  good  fresh  cement  are  suitable  to  be  used  for  theiii,  and 
men  skilled  in  cement- work  must  be  employed. 

Every  brick  is  to  be  saturated  well  with  water  before  being  laid  in  the  cement- 
mortar. 

Cement  will  only  harden  with  abundance  of  water ;  in  fact,  too  much  cannot  be 

used. 

After  the  walls  are  finished,  they  are  to  be  coated  with  cement  by  a  good  plas- 
terer, who  will  also  take  care  to  use  water  in  profusion,  and  as  soon  as  the  cement  is 
hard,  the  drainers  may  be  used. 

The  false  bottom  consists  usually  of  boards  or  planks,  which  are  full  of  holes, 
covered  with  wire-cloth  or  bagging,  and  supported  by  blocks  or  rows  of  bricks.  Both 
wire-cloth  and  bagging  are  on  hand  in  every  mill,  the  first  from  the  machine,  and  the 
latter  as  baling  material,  and  may  be  used  according  to  the  supply  of  one  or  the  other. 

Wire-cloth  is  preferable  because  it  lasts  longer,  but  bagging  has  the  advantage 
of  being  bleached  white,  ready  for  pulp  by  the  time  it  is  worn  out. 

The  wire-cloth  or  bagging  is  protected  against  the  feet  and  tools  of  the  men, 
who  take  out  the  pulp,  by  loose  boards  laid  over  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  leave 
space  enough  between  them  for  the  escaj)e  of  the  liquid. 

Perforated  tiles  or  bricks  are  also  in  use  for  this  purpose,  but  we  understand 
that  they  sometimes  give  trouble  by  breaking,  though  it  might  be  supposed  that 
their  manufacture  could  be  perfected  so  as  to  overcome  this  difficulty. 

The  outlet,  which  is  jjrovided  for  the  escape  of  the  liquid  from  the  drainers,  must 
be  closed  by  a  stop-cock,  if  it  is  not  desired  that  the  bleach-solution  should  run  off 
as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  bottom. 

43.  Waste  Bleach-Liquor.— If  the  waste  liquor  is  to  be  pumped  into  an  upper 
receiver,  to  be  transformed  again  into  fresh  solution,  or  to  be  made  use  of  for  pre- 
liminary bleaching,  a  stop-cock  is  not  required. 

The  solution  is  in  that  case  conducted  through  a  lead  pipe  into  a  reservoir  below 
the  drainers,  and  it  may  here  be  suggested  that  in  rag-mills  where  the  amount  of 
bleaching  powders  is  comparatively  small,  the  expense  caused  by  receivers  above  and 
below,  pump,  pipes,  power,  and  repairs,  may  often  be  a  full  offset  to  all  the  benefit 
derived  from  this  source.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  the  bleaching  chlorine  or 
hypochlorous  acid  of  such  solutions  is  not  only  gradually  disappearing  and  replaced 
by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  but  that  these  changes  are  greatly  assisted  by  all 
the  manipulations  which  the  liquids  are  made  to  undergo. 

It  is  certainly  better  to  use  the  powders  with  economy,  but  always  fresh,  than  to 
bleach  with  an  excess,  in  the  expectation  to  recover  it  from  the  waste  liquor. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS. 


73 


It  is,  however,  in  all  cases  advisable  to  gather  the  fluids  escaping  from  the 
drainers  into  a  cistern,  where  the  fibres,  which  may. have  escaped  with  them,  can  be 
deposited. 

The  floor  of  the  drainer-room  is  exposed  to  dropjiings  of  water  from  many 
sources,  and  has  to  be  frequently  washed.  It  should  have  a  smooth  pavement,  slant- 
ing towards  a  drain,  through  which  all  these  waters  can  run  off". 

44.  Sour  Bleaching  is  the  process  of  bleaching  which  is  carried  on  partly  or 
altogether  in  drainers.  High  and  capacious  drainers,  holding  5000  to  10,000  pounds 
of  pulp,  are  best  suited  for  it. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  use  of  acid,  which  acts  exactly  as  it  does  in  the 
engine,  in  connection  with  the  solution  of  powders. 

After  the  drainer  has  been  filled  with  half-stufl",  the  bleach  solution,  previously 
prepared  in  a  reservoir  above  it,  is  admitted  on  top. 

The  half-stuff",  in  losing  the  water,  shrinks  into  a  smaller  volume  away  from  the 
sides,  and  any  liquid  poured  on  it  in  that  condition  would  run  down  along  the  sides 
without  penetrating  it.  The  drainer  must  therefore  be  prepared  for  the  bleaching 
operation  by  a  workman,  who  enters  and  packs  the  half-stuff"  tight  all  around. 

Enough  bleach  solution  must  be  used  to  saturate  the  whole  mass,  but  no  more ; 
and  after  a  short  time  largely  diluted  vitriol  is  emptied  on  it  from  another  reservoir. 

The  quantity  of  each  solution  which  is  required  for  a  certain  amount  of  stuff"  is 
soon  ascertained  by  experience. 

Some  paper-makers  reverse  the  process  by  adding  the  acid  first  and  the  bleach 
solution  second;  and  others  mix  the  chlorine  preparation  with  the  pulp  in  the  engine 
before  emptying. 

In  one  of  the  largest  and  best  managed  mills  of  this  country  the  bleach  solution 
is  divided  into  two  parts :  the  first  smaller  one  is  mixed  with  the  stuff"  in  the  engine 
and  emptied  with  it,  the  acid  is  run  into  the  drainer  after  it  has  been  filled,  and  the 
second  larger  part  of  the  bleach  solution  is  added  last  from  a  reservoir. 

This  method  is  modified  in  all  imaginable  ways  by  bleaching  partly  in  the 
engine  and  partly  in  the  drainer,  and  has  the  advantage  that  it  saves  the  time  other- 
wise used  by  the  Avashing  engines  for  bleaching.  If  it  is  done  entirely  in  the  drainers, 
the  contact  of  the  solutions  with  the  iron  of  the  engine  is  avoided. 

It  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  progress  of  the  operation  cannot  be  watched, 
and  that,  even  with  the  greatest  care,  some  portions  of  the  pulp  do  not  receive  their 
due  share  of  liquor,  and  are  taken  from  the  drainers  imperfectly  bleached. 

45.  Bleaching  Engines. — The  fine  paper  manufactured  in  this  country  is  probably 
all  bleached  in  the  washing  engines ;  sejDarate  bleaching  engines  are  not,  to  our 
knowledge,  used  anywhere  in  the  United  States. 

The  only  ground  on  which  special  bleaching  engines  can  be  recommended  is, 
that  they  are  constructed  especially  for  the  purpose,  without  knives,  and  of  materials 
which  cannot  be  corroded  or  destroyed  by  acids,  such  as  lead  or  stone. 

10 


74 


MANUFACTURE  OF  FAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Such  bleachers  must  be  situated  below  the  washers,  connected  with  them  by 
spouts,  and  above  the  drainers  into  which  they  are  emptied. 

The  building,  gearings,  spouting,  pipes,  &c.,  are  thus  made  more  complicated ; 
and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  the  benefits  derived  are  proportionate  to  the  increased  cost. 

The  damage  done  to  the  knives  of  the  washing  engines  by  the  chlorine  or  acids 
is  practically  very  trifling,  and  the  iron,  which  might  be  introduced  into  the  paper 
from  this  source,  is  j)i'obably  less  than  the  inevitable  quantities  contained  in  nearly 
all  waters. 

(d)  Bleaching  with  Gas. 

46.  Preparation  of  the  Pulp. — The  same  drainers  in  which  the  jorocess  of  sour 
bleaching  is  carried  on,  are  suitable  for  the  reception  of  washed  half-stuff  which  is 
to  be  bleached  with  chlorine  gas. 

It  is  important  that  the  pulp  should  be  pretty  dry,  as  otherwise  the  water  sur- 
rounding the  fibres  absorbs  a  part  of  the  gas  and  withholds  it  from  the  intended 
action  on  the  stuff.  Though  it  must  be  dry  enough  not  to  yield  any  water  if  pressed 
in  the  hand,  it  should  yet  be  moist. 

The  half-stuff  must  remain  a  long  time  in  the  drainers  to  reach  that  state,  and 
a  large  number  of  the  latter  is  necessary. 

To  avoid  this  and  to  save  a  large  amount  of  capital  in  the  form  of  prepared  ra^s 
from  being  always  locked  up  in  the  drainers,  several  methods  have  come  into  use  by 
which  the  half-stuff  is  dried  mechanically. 

The  first  one  was  to  force  the  water  out  of  the  half-stuff  in  a  strong  press,  and  to 
tear  afterwards  the  solid  body  thus  formed  into  shreds  by  means  of  jjickers  or  devils. 
This  required  much  labor,  and  the  half-stuff,  after  all,  did  not  possess  that  sponginess 
which  makes  it  easy  for  the  gas  to  penetrate  it. 

Centrifugal  drainers,  similar  to  those  used  as  cloth- wringers,  are  also  employed 
for  this  purpose.  Fig.  43  represents  one  of  them,  made  by  Messrs.  Rice,  Barton  & 
Fales,  Worcester,  Mass. 

The  upright  shaft  is  the  centre  of  a  cylinder  with  solid  bottom,  and  sides  formed 
of  strong  wire.  This  cylinder  is  filled  with  wet  half-stuff,  and  turned  1000  to  1500 
times  per  minute  by  the  belt.  The  centrifugal  power  created  by  that  speed  throws 
the  pulp'witli  great  force  against  the  wire  sides ;  the  water  escaj)es  through  the  open- 
ings, while  the  fibres  are  held  in  and  form  a  thin,  spongy  band  all  around.  A  few 
minutes  are  sufficient  for  such  an  operation,  the  dry  pulp  is  removed  by  hand,  and  a 
fresh  supply  of  wet  pulp  packed  in. 

This  machine  furnishes  the  half-stuff  in  as  good  a  condition  as  can  be  desired, 
but  it  works  by  stops  and  starts,  and  requires  much  labor. 

The  best  continuously  running  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is  the  making  cylinder 
and  first  press  of  a  cylinder  paper-machine,  called  a  wet  machine,  and  used  exten- 
sively for  straw  and  wood  pulp. 


WASHING,  BLEACHING,  DBAINING,  AND  BLEACHING  WITH  GAS.  75 

The  washing  engines  are  emptied  into  a  stuff-chest  with  agitator,  from  which 
the  cylinder  is  supplied.  The  half-stuff  forms  a  web,  as  on  a  paper-machine,  and  is 
taken  off  in  rolls. 

The  gray  half-stuff  dried  by  one  of  these  methods  is  piled  into  chambers  of 
brick  and  cement,  similar  to  the  drainers  described  before,  but  with  an  arch  of  the 


Fig.  43. 


same  material  covering  the  top.  The  chlorine  would  not  be  able  to  penetrate  through 
it  if  the  stuff  were  allowed  to  form  a  solid  pile ;  it  is  therefore  laid  on  wooden  shelves 
made  of  scantling  without  the  use  of  metal,  as  nails  or  otherwise. 

47.  Chlorine  Gas  and  its  Preparation. — Chlorine  is  a  yellow-greenish  gas,  of  very 
strong,  suffocating  smell ;  it  affects  the  throat  and  lungs  violently,  and  if  inhaled  in 
large  quantities  may  cause  sudden  death.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2.4,  or  it  is  nearly 
two  and  one-half  times  as  heavy  as  our  atmospheric  air. 

It  is  easily  produced  from  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  manganese  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  under  the  influence  of  heat.  Earthen  retorts,  surrounded  by  an  earthen 
or  iron  mantle  or  jacket,  are  used  for  it.  The  hollow  sjiace  created  by  this  jacket  is 
filled  with  water,  into  which  steam  is  introduced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  heat  it, 
without  allowing  it  to  reach  the  boiling-point.  If  the  temperature  should  rise  too 
high,  the  liquid  contents  of  the  retort  would  l)e  bodily  carried  to  the  pulp  in  the  form 
of  vapor. 

Manganese  is  a  mineral  which  contains  variable  quantities  of  peroxide  of 
manganese,  according  to  the  different  mines  from  Avhich  it  comes — sometimes  as  large 


76  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

a  proportion  as  90  per  cent.  The  retort  must  be  opened  to  introduce  this  substance, 
but  the  hydrochloric  acid  can  be  poured  in,  as  it  is  required,  through  an  N-shaped 
lead  pipe,  which  is  fastened  in  the  cover.  Some  of  the  acid  always  remains  in  the 
bend  of  the  pipe  and  prevents  the  escape  of  gas. 

The  oxygen  of  the  peroxide  unites  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
and  forms  water ;  one-half  of  the  liberated  chlorine  joins  the  manganese,  and  the 
other  half  escapes  through  the  lead  pipe  to  the  bleaching  chamber,  which  it  enters 
through  the  centre  of  the  covering-arch.  The  equation  for  this  chemical  transforma- 
tion is  as  follows : 

MnO,    +    2HC1    =    MnCl    +    2H0    +  CI 

Peroxide        Hydrochloric  Chloride  Water.  Chlorine, 

of  manganese.  acid.  of  manganese. 

The  gas  often,  especially  if  heated  too  much,  carries  some  hydrochloric  acid 
along  to  the  half-stuff,  giving  it  a  yellow  appearance ;  but  it  can  be  easily  prevented 
from  doing  so  if  forced  to  pass,  on  its  way  to  the  chamber,  through  a  pipe  or  pot  filled 
with  manganese.  The  hydrochloric  acid  joins  the  manganese,  creates  again  free 
chlorine,  and  is  thus  not  only  made  harmless,  but  even  useful.  Three  to  five  parts 
of  acid  are  used .  to  one  of  manganese ;  and  it  is  always  safe  to  take  an  excess  of  the 
latter,  as  the  chloride  of  manganese  is  soluble  in  water  and  can  be  washed  out,  while 
the  remaining  mineral  may  be  mixed  with  a  new  portion  of  manganese,  and  thus 
thoroughly  exhausted. 

In  some  localities  it  may  be  cheaper  to  use  sulphuric  acid  and  common  salt  in 
place  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  these  take  the  place  of  it  in  the  retort. 

Common  salt  or  chloride  of  sodium  is  a  combination  of  chlorine  and  sodium, 
which,  with  suljjhuric  acid,  forms  sulphate  of  soda  and  hydrochloric  acid,  according 
to  the  following  equation  : 

SO3HO    +    NaCl    =    NaOS03    +  HCI 

Sulphuric  Chloride  of  Sulphate  of  Hydrochlorio 

acid.  sodium.  soda.  acid. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  being  thus  produced,  the  rest  of  the  process  is  the  same 
as  before  described. 

The  quantity  of  chlorine  and  chemicals  needed  varies  for  rags  of  different  quality 
and  color,  and  must  be  found  by  experience. 

48.  Process  of  Bleaching  with  Gas. — The  gas,  having  entered  on  top,  soon 
descends. by  its  weight  through  the  stuff  to  the  bottom  of  the  drainer,  bleaching  it 
according  to  the  same  laws  which  govern  the  action  of  liquid  solution.  There  is 
always  and  must  be  enough  moisture  or  water  left  in  the  rags  to  furnish  the  bleach- 
ing oxygen,  without  which  the  chlorine  has  no  effect  on  them. 

The  process  can  be  watched  by  placing  a  small  lot  of  stuff  near  an  opening  in 
the  door,  whence  it  can  be  withdrawn  and  examined.  When  it  is  found  to  be  white 
the  door  is  removed,  but  the  smell  is  so  offensive  that  it  has  to  remain  for  some  time 
before  anybody  can  venture  to  approach  it.    Bleaching  chambers  have,  in  some  in- 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


77 


stances,  been  connected  with  the  chimneys  of  steam-boilers  and  with  ventilators,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  excess  of  gas,  but  only  with  j)artial  success. 

Where  chlorine  gas  is  made,  its  escape  through  breaking  or  leaking  retorts, 
pipes,  or  chambers,  cannot  be  entirely  avoided,  and  is  offensive  enough  to  try  any- 
body's lungs  and  patience.  Even  if  the  bleaching  is  done  at  a  distance  from  the 
mill,  it  is  bad  for  the  workmen  to  be  obliged  to  submit  to  the  ordeal  of  removing  the 
pulp  from  the  chambers  yet  partly  filled  with  gas. 

Chlorine  gas  acts  very  violently ;  it  must  have  destroyed  some  of  the  finer  fibres 
before  the  coarsest  ones  are  white,  and  thus  causes  considerable  loss. 

The  use  of  gas  should  give  way  to  that  of  solution  wherever  possible ;  the  former 
should  be  used  only  for  the  coarsest  fibres,  and  then  only  in  insufficient  quantities, 
and  the  process  finished  with  liquor  in  the  engine. 

We  know  of  only  one  mill  in  the  United  States  where  chlorine  is  used  in  the 
form  of  gas. 


SECTION  IV. 

(a)  Mixing,  [b]  Washing  and  Beating,  (c)  Sizing,  {d)  Coloring,  (e)  Patent 
Engines,  (/)  Stuff-chests  and  Stuff-pumps. 

(a)  3£ixing. 

49.  General  Remarks. — It  is  in  mixing  the  pulp  from  different  fibres,  wherein  the 
paper-maker  displays  more  than  in  any  other  oj)eration  his  knowledge  and  judgment. 
He  must  understand  the  nature  of  the  raw  materials  in  order  to  blend  their  different 
qualities  in  proportions,  which  make  up  a  paper,  answering  in  every  respect  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  intended. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  any  paper-mill,  however  extensive,  should  keep  a  stock 
of  all  kinds  of  rags  and  other  fibres  on  hand,  so  that  it  could  make  any  grade  of 
paper  which  might  be  asked  for.  It  is,  on  the  contrary,  advisable  that  each  estab- 
lishment should  confine  itself  to  one  class  of  papers,  and  only  buy  such  rags  as  are 
suitable  for  that  class.  If  there  is  an  advantage  in  buying  and  sorting  mixed  rags, 
those  portions  which  are  either  too  fine  or  too  coarse  for  the  use  of  the  mill  should  be 
sold  to  other  manufacturers. 

Though  the  manufacture  of  one  class  of  paper  may  be  strictly  adhered  to,  all 
endeavors  to  use  for  it  lower  grades  of  rags  or  other  available  stock  deserve  to  be 
encouraged. 

50.  Rules  and  Example. — As  a  general  rule  the  best  rags  are  reserved  for  the 
finest  or  highest-priced  papers,  and  so  on  down. 

The  relative  prices  of  different  kinds  of  rags  can  alone  decide  whether  it  pays  to 


78 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


work  cheap  stock  into  higher  grades  of  paper ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  such 
rags  have  to  undergo  a  good  many  more  operations,  and  therefore  lose  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  their  weight  than  better  ones. 

Coarse  fibres  may,  by  energetic  boiling  and  bleaching,  be  transformed  into  white 
paper,  but  this  suddenly  acquired  splendor  will  not  prove  as  permanent  as  that  which 
was  inherent  in  the  raw  material. 

The  tendency  of  the  paper,  to  turn  dark  or  yellow  in  the  course  of  time,  will  be 
proportionate  to  the  chemical  treatment  and  the  transformations  to  which  the  fibres 
have  been  subjected. 

For  writing  purj)oses,  a  strong,  stiff,  crackling  sheet  is  desirable ;  while  printers' 
types  give  a  better  impression  on  soft  paper.  Strong  fibres,  such  as  linen  not  much 
worn,  usually  compose  the  larger  part  of  the  former ;  while  well-worn  cotton  rags 
are  suitable  for  the  latter. 

In  thin  papers  the  length  and  strength  of  the  fibres  have  to  make  up  for  their 
scarcity,  and  the  strongest  of  flax  and  hemp  rags,  or  even  ropes,  must  be  used.  The 
thicker  or  heavier  a  paper  is  to  be,  the  more  of  weak  material  may  enter  into  its 
composition. 

The  work  of  the  paper-machine  must  also  be  considered  in  mixing  the  pulp,  so 
that  no  difficulties  will  be  experienced.  If  the  pulp  for  a  heavy  sheet  would  be  made 
up  of  long  and  tough  fibres  only,  it  would  not  lose  enough  water  on  the  wire,  but 
enter  the  presses  in  a  wet  state,  and  become  crushed. 

All  the  paper  in  this  book  is  composed  of  one-third  No.  2  Italian  linen  rags  and 
two-thirds  domestic  cotton  rags  of  all  colors ;  the  thin  paper  of  the  plates  has  only 
been  beaten  a  longer  time  in  the  engine  and  contains  no  clay.  Some  delaines  were 
mixed  with  the  cotton  rags,  but  the  wool  as  well  as  the  colors  disappeared  under  the 
influence  of  caustic  lime  in  the  rotary.  They  were  bleached  in  the  washing  engine, 
with  about  10  pounds  of  bleaching  powders  jier  100  pounds  of  paper,  a  solution  being 
made  fresh  for  every  engine.  One-quarter  of  a  gallon  of  vitriol  was  added  to  every 
500  pound  engine,  and  the  pulp  emjjtied  into  open  brick  drainers. 

It  is  the  paper-maker's  aim  to  make  the  best  j^ossible  paper  with  the  least 
expense  out  of  the  raw  material.  Judgment  and  exjierience  alone  can  teach  how  to 
do  this ;  the  ever-changing  prices  and  demands  of  the  markets,  and  the  difference  of 
the  raw  materials  in  various  countries  and  even  localities,  23revent  the  establishment 
of  any  rules  or  prescriptions. 

(b)  Washing  and  Beating. 

51.  Washing,  and  Testing  for  Chlorine. — No  matter  how  the  rags  have  been 
bleached,  some  chlorine,  hydrochloric  acid,  chloride  of  calcium,  and  other  products 
of  the  bleaching  process,  are  always  adhering  to  them,  which,  if  left  in  the  paper, 
not  only  injure  its  durability  by  turning  it  yellow  and  brittle  in  the  course  of  time, 
but  also  prevent  perfect  sizing  and  coloring. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


79 


If  considerable  quantities  of  chlorine  liave  been  left  in  the  pulp,  they  will  act  on 
the  fibres  until  they  have  destroyed  the  paper.  If  the  quantity  of  chlorine  is  very 
small,  it  will  evaporate  with  the  water  on  the  drying  cylinders,  dissolve  some  of  their 
iron,  and  the  iron-salts  thus  formed  will  impregnate  the  dryer  felts,  which  deliver 
them  again  to  the  paper. 

Messrs.  Fordos  &  Gelis  have  found,  by  numerous  experiments,  that  pulp  did 
not  contain  any  iron  when  taken  from  the  beaters,  but  a  considerable  quantity  after 
it  had  passed  over  the  machine. 

These  iron-salts  in  the  finished  paper  are  originally  of  a  very  low  state  of  oxida- 
tion and  colorless,  but  gradually  take  up  oxygen  and  moisture  from  the  air,  and  give 
to  the  paper  the  well-known  yellow,  rust-like  color. 

After  the  beater  has  been  loaded  with  its  due  portion  of  pulp  and  water,  our 
efforts  must  be  first  directed  to  the  exjoulsion  of  the  chlorine.  The  beaters  are  for  this 
purpose  provided  with  one  or,  better,  two  such  revolving  washers  as  we  have  described 
before,  and  with  a  good  stream  of  clear  water. 

The  roll  must  be  kept  raised  Avhile  the  wash-process  is  going  on,  to  prevent  cut- 
ting of  the  fibres,  a  portion  of  which  might,  if  reduced  too  much,  escape  through  the 
washing  cylinders. 

The  thorough  elimination  of  chlorine  in  all  its  combinations  is  too  important 
a  matter,  to  be  left  entirely  to  the  judgment  of  the  engineer  or  to  chance. 

Blue  litmus-paper  in  contact  with  any  acid  liquid  turns  red,  and  can  be  used 
with  advantage  to  test  the  pulp.  As  long  as  the  blue  litmus-color  of  a  small  slip  of 
paper,  immersed  for  a  moment  in  the  engine,  is  thereby  turned  red,  the  washing  is  to 
be  continued. 

This  test  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  applied  by  anybody.  The  foreman  should 
have  some  of  the  litmus-paper  on  hand  at  all  times. 

There  is,  however,  a  more  sensitive  method  by  which  the  presence  of  chlorine 
can  be  established  with  certainty.  It  is  constantly  and  successfully  in  use  in  several 
of  the  best  New  England  mills,  and  is  based  on  the  characteristic  color  which  iodine 
produces  in  contact  with  starch. 

Iodine  is  an  element  of  the  same  class  as  chlorine,  and  its  combination  with 
potassium — the  iodide  of  potassium — can  be  purchased  at  any  drug  store.  We  dis- 
solve it,  for  our  use,  in  pure  water  and  with  enough  good  white  starch  to  make  a 
milky  liquid.    Proteaux  recommends  a  mixture  of 

Iodide  of  potassium,        ......    1  part. 

Starch,  2  parts. 

Water,  3  parts. 

This  solution  of  starch  and  iodide  of  potassium  is  kept  in  a  small  bottle  for  use 
by  the  foreman  or  engineer.  To  test  the  contents  of  an  engine,  a  handful  of  the  pulp 
is  taken  out,  pressed  so,  that  the  excess  of  liquid  runs  off",  while  leaving  the  pulj)  yet 
wet,  when  a  few  drops  of  our  solution  are  poured  on  it. 


80 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


If  any  blue,  purple  or  violet  color,  however  faint  it  may  be,  makes  its  appear- 
ance, the  chlorine  or  chlorine  acids  have  not  entirely  departed.  Chlorine  has  a 
stronger  affinity  for  potassium  than  iodine,  and  leaves  its  companions  to  join  the 
potassium  as  chloride  of  potassium,  thereby  setting  the  iodine  free,  which,  finding 
itself  in  the  presence  of  the  starch,  shows  the  characteristic  blue  color. 

52.  Antichlorine. — Many  chemicals,  especially  hyposulphite  of  soda,  have  been 
proposed  as  so-called  antichlorine ;"  they  all  consist  of  salts  which  take  up  the 
chlorine  or  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  pulp,  and  form  neutral  combinations  with  them. 
They  are  recommended  on  the  theory  that  the  chlorine  is  thus  made  harmless,  and  it 
is  true  that  they  must  prove  a  great  improvement,  where  none  or  only  imperfect 
washing  has  been  practiced. 

The  presence  of  chlorine  is  especially  obnoxious  in  the  manufacture  of  some 
colored  papers.  In  some  mills  antichlorine  is  therefore  added  to  the  j)ulp  before 
washing,  in  order  to  neutralize  any  free  chlorine  which  might  possibly  remain  after 
the  operation  of  washing  has  been  finished. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  presence  in  the  pulp  of  the  salts  formed  by  the 
antichlorine  is  not  desirable,  and  that  they  should  be  washed  out.  Thorough  wash- 
ing is  thus  on  all  hands  considered  indispensable,  and,  if  done  with  the  necessary 
care  and  precaution,  the  money  spent  for  antichlorine  may  be  saved. 

53.  Beating. — The  word  "  beating  "  expresses  well  the  operation  which  follows 
the  washing ;  it  indicates  that  here  as  well  as  in  the  washing-engine  the  rags  are  not 
to  be  cut,  but  that  the  fibres  must  be  drawn  out  to  full  length  by  the  action  of  the 
knives  and  the  friction  among  the  rags  themselves. 

If  this  theory  should  have  to  be  carried  out  literally  for  all  kinds  of  stock  and 
paper,  most  paper-mills  would  require  twice  or  three  times  as  many  beaters  as  they 
have  now. 

The  price  of  a  few  grades  only,  such  as  bank-note,  justifies  so  expensive  a  process, 
but  however  limited  may  be  the  power  and  the  number  of  beaters,  it  must  be  the 
manufacturer's  aim  to  work  up  to  the  principle  as  far  as  his  mill  will  permit. 

As  soon  as  the  washing  cylinders  are  raised  and  the  wash-water  stopped,  the 
engineer  lowers  the  roll  sufficiently  to  begin  the  operation.  As  the  disintegration  pro- 
ceeds and  the  rags  disappear,  the  sj^ace  between  the  knives  must  be  further  dimin- 
ished.   The  slower  this  is  done  the  longer  will  be  the  fibres. 

Slow  beating  and  blunt  knives  make  long  pulp ;  quick  work  and  sharp  knives 
short  pulp. 

While  a  beater  may  be  run  off  in  from  three  to  five  hours  for  thick  paper, 
twenty-four  and  more  hours  are  required  for  the  thinnest  sheets. 

To  examine  the  pulp,  a  small  portion  of  it  is  dissolved  in  a  basin  with  a  large 
quantity  of  water,  and  slowly  poured  out  so  that  it  flows  over  the  rim  as  a  very  thin 
sheet.  If  any  little  knots  appear  in  it,  or  if  the  pulp  looks  cloudy  instead  of  being 
uniformly  divided,  it  must  be  brushed  or  drawn  out  more.  The  engineer  lowers  the 
roll  for  this  purpose  so  far,  that  its  edges  approach  those  of  the  plate  as  much  as  pos- 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


81 


sible  without  actually  touching  them,  and  turns  the  pulj)  with  the  paddle.  The  rags 
are  liable  to  lodge  on  the  bottom  or  in  corners,  and  it  is  the  engineer's  duty  to  stir  up 
the  pulp  frequently,  especially  in  those  places. 

Experienced  paper-makers  often  express  their  opinion  of  the  importance  of  the 
beaters  and  engineers  in  charge  of  them  by  saying  that  the  paper  is  made  in  the  beat- 
ing engine. 

Though  this  will  aj^ply  to  every  one  of  the  operations  which  rags  have  to  un- 
dergo, it  indicates  correctly  the  value  of  a  good  engineer. 

54.  Self-Actors. — An  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  the  mills  to  some  extent 
independent  of  the  skill  of  these  men  by  means  of  self-actors. 

The  self-actor  is  a  mechanical  contrivance  driven  by  a  cord,  which  lowers  the 
roll  automatically.  It  replaces  the  hand-wheel  and  screw,  by  which  the  engineer 
raises  and  lowers  the  lighter,  and  occupies  its  place  at  the  engine.  The  upright  rod 
has  a  strong  pin  through  it,  resting  on  a  steel  ring,  of  which  the  rod  is  the  centre. 
The  surface  of  this  ring  is  shaped  so  that  the  pin,  while  passing  once  around  the  circle, 
descends  gradually  about  |  inch.  This  descent  is  not  uniform,  but  curved  in  the  same 
projoortion  to  the  whole  time  or  circle,  as  a  skilful  engineer  would  lower  the  roll 
while  working  off  one  beater. 

The  pin  and  rod  have  no  turning  movement,  but  the  steel  ring  which  is  fast- 
ened on  a  worm-wheel,  makes  a  revolution  in  from  four  to  eight  hours. 

The  shaft,  which  carries  the  worm,  is  parallel  and  corresponds  with  a  reduced 
extension  of  the  roll-shaft,  and  both  are  provided  with  a  set  of  small  cord-pulleys. 
The  speed  of  the  self-actor  can  thus  be  changed  by  the  use  of  different  pulleys  and 
the  time  of  an  operation  varied  to  suit  the  diflPerent  kinds  of  rags ;  but  the  descent  of 
the  roll  bears  to  the  time  always  the  same  proportion,  as  the  curve  of  the  ring  remains 
the  same. 

It  may  answer  for  the  manufacture  of  a  certain  kind  of  paper  from  a  certain 
stock. 

But  if  the  quality  or  weight  of  the  paper  to  be  made,  or  the  raw  material,  or 
even  the  treatment  of  the  rags  previous  to  beating  is  often  changed,  the  hand  of  a 
skilful  engineer  is  alone  able  to  conduct  the  operation  so  as  to  suit  all  circumstances. 
This  is  probably  the  reason  why  self-actors  have  not  become  very  popular  in  paper- 
mills. 

55.  Plates  and  General  Construction  of  Beaters. — All  the  bed-jilates  described  in 
the  section  on  washers  are  likewise  used  for  beaters,  but  the  elbow-plates  seem  to  be 
generally  the  favorites.  The  cast-steel  ones,  j\  to  |  inch  thick,  filled  in  with  wood, 
which  remain  sharp  all  the  time,  deserve  here  the  preference. 

Only  in  a  few  of  the  fine  New  England  mills  are  brass  bed-plates  substituted  for 
steel  ones.  They  have  mostly  the  form  of  solid  elbow-plates,  and  certainly  cannot 
fail  to  furnish  a  long  fibre,  as  they  are  too  soft  to  cut  it.  It  is  true  that  they  are 
more  expensive  than  steel  plates,  but  if  they  furnish  tougher  paper,  or  enable  us  to 

11 


82 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FEOM  BAGS  JBY  MACHINERY. 


use  weaker  rags  in  jjlace  of  stronger  ones,  they  will  prove  the  more  economical  of 
the  two. 

The  princijjles,  explained  for  the  washing  engine  in  the  foregoing  paragraph, 
govern  the  construction  of  the  beaters,  with,  only  slight  modifications. 

The  rags,  furnished  to  the  heating  engine,  are  already  prepared  to  some  extent, 
and  therefore  do  not  require  as  violent  a  treatment  as  in  the  washers. 

The  rolls  of  the  beaters  for  this  reason  carry  usually  more  fly-bars,  and  make  25 
to  50  revolutions  more  j)er  minute  than  the  washers. 

The  vat  of  the  beating  engine  may,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  be  made  deeper 
than  that  of  the  washer,  but  a  moderate  height  is  preferable  for  engines  of  all 
kinds. 

56.  Power  consumed  by  Engines. — The  power  consumed  by  an  engine  varies  with 
the  nature  of  the  rags,  the  manner  and  time  in  which  they  are  treated,  and  with  the 
sharpness  of  the  knives. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  exact  data  for  it,  but  we  have  tried  to  ascertain 
through  exchange  of  views  with  experienced  manufacturers,  what  may  be  considered 
a  fair  estimate. 

The  majority  of  all  the  engines  in  this  country  have  a  capacity  of  from  4  to  600 
pounds,  and  require,  with  medium  qualities  of  mixed  rags  and  ordinary  treatment,  an 
average  of  from  10  to  15  horse-power. 

(c)  Sizing. 

57.  Comparison  between  Surface  Sizing  and  Sizing  in  the  Engine. — The  large  bulk 
of  all  white  paper  is  used  for  writing  and  printing  purposes,  and  must  be  prepared  to 
suit  either  one  or  the  other. 

Printers'  ink  is  an  oily,  little-fluent  substance,  which  does  not  spread  beyond  the 
limits  given  by  the  type  on  any  common  paper.  Writing  ink,  being  more  diluted 
and  watery,  allows  itself  to  be  absorbed  from  beyond  the  space,  assigned  to  it  by  the 
pen,  on  a  thirsty  sheet.  Unsized  linen  or  cotton  paper  is  full  of  pores,  or  little  cavi- 
ties and  channels,  into  which  the  writing  ink  flows,  and  spreads  itself  until  it  is  all 
absorbed. 

Printing  paper  therefore  does  not  require  any  sizing,  but  it  is  necessary  to  fill 
the  pores  or  cover  the  web  of  writing  paper  with  some  substance,  which  will  prevent 
it  from  swallowing  up  the  writing  fluid. 

Hand-made  paper  is  simply  dipped  into  a  solution  of  gelatine  or  animal  size ; 
the  surplus  is  removed  by  pressing  it  between  felts,  and  the  sheets  are  hung  up  to 
dry  slowly  by  evaporation. 

The  gelatine,  when  dry,  forms  an  impermeable  coating  on  both  sides  of  the  paper, 
which  separates  the  ink  from  the  absorbing  pores. 

Machine-made  paper  is  treated  in  a  similar  way,  which  we  shall  describe  after 
having  first  shown  how  the  paper  is  made. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLORING,  ETC. 


83 


Paper,  made  on  the  machine  or  by  hand,  used  to  be  treated  alike  after  it  had 
been  sized  in  this  way,  and  required  a  great  deal  of  labor  before  the  improved  system, 
described  in  Section  VI,  had  been  gradually  develojied. 

It  was  therefore  natural  that  the  paper-makers  should  have  been  anxious  to  find 
a  process  by  which  the  paper  could  be  produced  sized,  in  the  same  time,  and  with  no 
more  labor  than  when  unsized. 

Engine  sizing  or  sizing  in  the  pulp  is  the  result  of  these  attempts. 

Surface-sized  paper  is  covered  with  smooth  uniform  coats,  but  its  pores  are  im- 
perfectly filled;  while  the  fibres  are  each  separately  surrounded,  the  pores -filled,  and 
the  whole  mass  impregnated  with  the  sizing  material,  if  the  paper  has  been  sized  in 
the  engine. 

If  surface-sized  paper  is  scratched  and  the  coating  removed,  it  will  not  hold  ink 
any  longer  in  such  places,  but  acts  like  printing  paper,  while  paj)er  sized  in  the  pulp, 
can  be  written  upon  as  long  as  there  is  any  of  it  left. 

Surface-sized  paper  is  smooth,  and  offers  no  obstacle  to  steel  pens  or  drawing 
utensils,  while  paper  sized  in  the  pulp,  even  if  well  calendered,  is  rougher,  and  not 
so  agreeable  to  write  upon. 

The  fibres  of  unsized  paper  interpose  themselves  without  obstacle,  so  as  to  form 
a  tough,  closely-felted  sheet,  but  the  fibres  of  engine-sized  pulp  are  surrounded  with  the 
size,  and  lose  thereby  much  of  the  soft  pliability  which  is  necessary  for  a  perfect  web. 

Unsized  paper  is  therefore  always  found  stronger,  though  not  so  stiff,  as  engine- 
sized  paper,  made  of  the  same  material  and  in  the  same  way. 

Mr.  G.  Planche  states  that,  according  to  experiments  made,  the  tenacity  of  un- 
sized paper  is  25  per  cent,  higher  than  of  the  same  sheet  sized  in  the  engine,  or  the 
former  will  carry  25  per  cent,  more  weight  before  it  breaks  than  the  latter.  Narrow 
strips  of  equal  size  are  cut  from  the  papers  which  are  to  be  thus  tested ;  they  are  fast- 
ened at  one  end  and  the  weights  attached  to  the  other. 

The  number  of  pounds  which  are  required  to  break  the  samples  shows  their  com- 
parative tenacity. 

Surface-sized  papers  receive  an  addition  to  this  strength  from  the  two  coats  of 
size,  which  is  quite  considerable. 

All  these  advantages  are  appreciated  by  the  public,  and  surface-  or  animal-sized 
paper  is  nearly  altogether  used  for  letters  and  the  better  classes  of  blank  books  in  Eng- 
land as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  Though  this  method  of  sizing  causes  additional 
expense,  the  manufacturer  is  compensated  by  higher  prices,  and  the  greater  strength, 
which  enable  him  to  use  a  much  larger  proportion  of  cotton  rags  than  j^aper  sized 
in  the  pulp  would  admit. 

Very  often  both  systems  are  united  by  sizing  the  pulp  first  and  the  web  afterwards. 

58.  Sizing  in  the  Engine. — The  prescriptions  for  sizing  in  the  engine  are  as  nu- 
merous as  the  patent  medicines  which  are  infallible  cures  for  nearly  every  disease,  and 
equally  effective.  The  proportions  which  answer  in  one  case  cannot  suit  in  another, 
where  the  raw  materials,  the  paper  to  be  made,  and  the  machinery  used,  are  different. 


84 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Nothing  can  disclose  the  secret  of  making  a  well-sized  paper  but  practical  expe- 
rience combined  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  chemical  process,  through  which 
alone  it  can  be  produced. 

The  resinous  size,  generally  used  at  the  present  time,  is  obtained  by  adding  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  alumina  or  alum  to  a  soap  of  resin  dissolved  in  soda. 

Alumina  (clay)  has  a  very  strong  affinity  for  vegetable  substances,  and  combines 
with  resin  mechanically,  but  with  a  strength  equal  to  a  chemical  union,  forming  a 
resinous  alumina. 

When  solutions  of  resin  in  soda  and  of  sulphate  of  alumina  are  brought  together, 
the  sulphuric  acid  forms  with  the  soda,  sulphate  of  soda,  and  the  resin  and  alurnina 
are  deposited  as  resinous  alumina. 

59.  Preparation  of  Vegetable  Size. — The  soda  or  oxide  of  sodium  in  soda-ash  or  in 
crystals  of  soda  is  united  with  carbonic  acid  to  carbonate  of  soda  (NaO,C02). 

The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  is  objectionable,  as  it  escapes  in  bubbles  while  the 
solution  of  resin  is  made,  or  as  foam  in  the  engine. 

The  soap-makers  use  caustic  soda  (NaO),  free  from  carbonic  acid,  for  the  solution 
of  resin,  and  it  was  naturally  supposed,  that  it  would  answer  better  for  size  than  the 
carbonates. 

Gabriel  Planche,  in  his  valuable  work  on  Paper -making ,  recommends  the  use  of 
caustic  soda  instead  of  the  carbonates.  The  soda  is  for  this  purpose  boiled  with  caustic 
(fresh-burnt)  lime ;  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  now  caustic  liquid 
is  used  for  the  solution  of  resin. 

This  has  frequently  been  tried  by  experienced  paper-makers,  but  it  has  gen- 
erally been  found  that  the  size  made  with  caustic  soda  was  not  as  efficient  as  that  made 
with  ordinary  soda-ash  or  crystallized  soda. 

We  are  unable  to  give  a  positive  explanation  of  this  fact,  but,  as  the  resin  must 
be  precipitated  again  in  the  engine,  it  is  perhaps  not  desirable  to  dissolve  it,  or  destroy 
its  character  as  thoroughly  as  if  washing  soap  were  to  be  made.  The  solution  of 
caustic  soda  may  contain  a  portion  of  the  lime  which  has  been  used  to  causticize  it, 
and  also  some  of  its  impurities,  and  the  presence  of  these  substances  ma/  prevent  the 
formation  of  a  good  sizing  soap. 

The  solution  of  resin  is  mostly  made  in  an  ordinary  wooden  tub  furnished  with 
a  steam-pipe,  but  a  copper  or  iron  caldron,  surrounded  by  an  iron  steam-mantle 
or  jacket,  would  be  preferable.  With  this  latter  arrangement  the  steam  will  fill  the 
jacket  instead  of  entering  into  the  solution  and  constantly  diluting  it. 

The  soap  could  be  removed  clean  and  clear  from  the  metal,  while  it  sticks  very 
closely  to  wood. 

A  tub  or  caldron,  of  about  4  feet  diameter  at  the  top  and  3  feet  high,  with  nar- 
rower rounded  bottom,  holding  about  250  gallons,  is  of  convenient  size  for  dissolving 
two  barrels  of  resin. 

The  soda  and  a  certain  quantity  of  water  are  mixed  in  this  tub ;  steam  is  ad- 


> 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  (JOLOBING,  ETC. 


85 


mitted,  and  as  soon  as  the  liquid  boils,  the  finely-powdered  resin  is  gradually 
thrown  in.  The  boiling  heat  is  kept  up,  and  the  whole  mass  is  constantly  stirred 
with  a  paddle  until  all  the  resin  is  dissolved. 

If  water  has  not  been  very  sparingly  used,  the  resin  soap,  a. pasty,  syrup-like 
mass,  settles  on  the  bottom,  and  the  remaining  solution  of  soda  floats  on  top.  The 
alkaline  liquid  can  easily  be  removed,  but  the  impurities  of  both  the  resin  and  soda 
become  mixed  with  the  soap  on  the  bottom  of  the  tub. 

It  has  been  found  by  some  of  our  experienced  paper-makers,  that  the  most  effect- 
ive size  is  obtained,  if  the  resin  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  soda-ash  of  such  concen- 
tration, that  its  specific  gravity  is  greater  than  that  of  the  resin  soap.  In  that  case  the 
soda  solution  remains  on  the  bottom,  while  the  resin  soap  floats  on  it,  and  the  soap 
never  boils  over  while  it  is  being  j)repared,  as  it  does  with  diluted  solutions. 

After  the  resin  and  the  soda  solution  have  been  boiled  and  stirred  for  about  two 
hours,  the  resin  soap  can  be  taken  out  in  a  perfectly  clean  condition,  as  the  surplus 
solution  and  all  the  impurities  remain  on  the  bottom. 

The  resin  is  better  dissolved  if  it  floats  in  the  solution  than  if  it  falls  to  the 
bottom. 

The  concentration  of  the  solution  is  not  produced  by  the  use  of  more  soda,  but 
by  the  reduction  of  the  water  to  the  smallest  possible  quantity  with  which  the  resin  can 
be  dissolved.  If,  for  instance,  one  pound  of  soda-ash  for  every  four  of  resin  is  the 
established  proportion,  125  pounds  must  be  taken  for  two  barrels  or  500  pounds  of 
resin.  The  minimum  quantity  of  water  which  is  required,  can  easily  be  found  by  a 
few  trials. 

The  addition  of  sugar  of  lead  to  the  soda  solution  is  frequently  recommended 
and  found  useful,  probably  because  its  heavy  specific  gravity  increases  that  of  the 
solution.  But  as  the  desired  gravity  can  be  joroduced  with  soda-ash  alone,  it  is  un- 
necessary to  resort  to  other  means. 

If  it  is  found,  after  removing  the  soap,  that  a  large  quantity  of  soda  solution  is 
left,  more  resin  or  less  solution  may  be  used  the  next  time. 

If  the  1-esin,  after  it  has  been  boiled  as  long  as  is  usual,  is  not  well  dissolved,  the 
proportion  of  soda  must  be  increased. 

The  quantity  of  soda  (oxide  of  sodium,  NaO)  contained  in  commercial  soda-ash, 
varies  from  47  to  57  per  cent.,  and  4  pounds  of  that  of  57  per  cent,  are  equal  in  effect 
to  5  pounds  of  47  per  cent. 

The  purest  soda-ash,  no  matter  of  what  percentage,  is  to  be  selected. 

Some  paper-makers  use  3,  some  4,  and  others  5  pounds  of  resin  to  1  pound 
of  soda-ash,  and  as  a  surplus  of  soda  cannot  do  any  harm,  they  may  all  be  suc- 
cessful. 

Crystals  of  soda  contain  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  only  about  22  per  cent, 
of  soda  (NaO)  ;  they  are  therefore  a  very  expensive  material.  They  will  hardly 
dissolve  twice  their  weight  of  resin,  but  are  nevertheless  sometimes  preferred  to  soda- 
ash,  because  they  are  purer. 


86 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


D'Arcet  recommends — 


Powdered  Resin, 
Crystals  of  Soda, 
Water,    .    .  . 


100. 


4.80'  parts. 
2.22  " 


(I 


Time,  2  to  3  hdurs. 


A  few  experiments  will  give  the  proportions  of  soda,  resin,  and  water  necessary 
in  every  case,  better  than  any  prescription. 

We  weigh  the  resin  contained  in  two  barrels ;  pulverize  it,  and  then  take  for 
every  4  pounds  of  resin  1  pound  of  best  soda-ash ;  dissolve  it  in  our  tub  or  caldron 
with  a  few  (say  10)  buckets  of  water ;  turn  steam  on,  and  throw  in  the  powdered 
resin  with  a  shovel  as  soon  as  the  liquid  is  boiling. 

The  liquid  is  stirred  with  a  paddle  while  the  resin  is  added,  and  if  it  is  found 
that  the  water  is  absorbed  before  all  the  resin  is  dissolved,  we  have  to  pour  in  more ; 
but  if  the  soda  solution,  on  cooling,  comes  to  the  top  instead  of  remaining  on  the 
bottom,  we  must  reduce  the  quantity  of  water  next  time. 

It  is  always  safe  to  use  a  surplus  of  soda-ash. 

Mr.  Adam  Ramage,  writing  under  the  name  of  "  Papyrus,"  recommends  in  No. 
20  of  the  Pape7'- Trade  Reporter  the  following  method  of  testing  whether  the  resin  is 
thoroughly  dissolved : 

"  Take  out  a  little  of  the  solution  by  allowing  the  stirring-paddle  to  drip  into  a  basin  half  full  of 
milkwarm  or  cold  water ;  dash  this  up  well  with  the  hand.  [The  pulp  being  mixed  with  cold  water 
in  the  engine,  none  but  cold  water  should  be  used  for  this  test. — The  Author.]  If  it  dissolves  freely 
in  the  water,  and  if,  after  shaking  the  size  off  the  hand,  there  are  no  fine  particles  of  resin  adhering  to 
the  hairs  on  the  back  of  the  hand,  the  size  is  made ;  if,  however,  although  it  may  seemingly  dissolve  in 
the  water,  there  is  a  dry  white  deposit  on  the  hairs,  it  is  not  boiled  enough  ;  so  boil  for  a  few  minutes 
longer  and  test  again.  Continue  this  until  it  will  stand  this  test.  This,  I  confess,  is  quite  a 
homely  test,  but  it  is  a  sure  one.  Just  as  certain  as  there  is  undissolved  resin  present,  it  will  adhere  to 
the  hair  on  the  back  of  the  hands.  Of  course  you  must  be  careful  to  keej}  the  hand  and  the  basin 
clean  and  entirely  free  from  acid  or  alkali." 

To  this  we  may  add,  that  more  soda-ash  must  be  mixed  in  if,  after  prolonged 
boiling,  a  thorough  solution  is  not  obtained. 

The  time  prescribed  for  such  an  operation  varies  from  fifteen  minutes  to  five 
hours ;  and  it  makes  little  difference  how  much  it  really  takes,  provided  that  the 
soap  be  well  made.  If  the  steam  is  introduced  directly  into  the  mixture,  it  dilutes  it 
by  condensing,  and  for  this  reason  it  may  be  preferable  to  shorten  the  time  as  much 
as  possible. 

If  the  resin  is  not  well  dissolved,  small  particles  of  it  appear  as  yellow  spots  in 
the  paper.  The  better  the  resin  has  been  powdered,  the  easier  will  it  dissolve ;  and 
it  would  pay  for  large  factories  to  use  a  little  mill,  consisting  of  a  vertical  revolving 
stone  running  on  a  stone  or  iron  platform,  for  grinding  it. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


87 


In  some  mills,  where  the  soap  is  made  with  concentrated  solution,  as  described,  it 
is  so  perfect  that  it  can  be  passed  through  a  No.  60  wire-cloth  and  used  directly  in 
the  engine. 

60.  Use  of  Starch. — In  many  mills  it  is,  however,  first  mixed  with  starch,  and 
for  this  purpose  must  be  more  diluted.  This  is  done  in  a  tub  lined  with  sheet  zinc, 
and  provided  with  a  steam-pipe. 

The  starch  is  dissolved  in  this  tub  by  means  of  hot  water,  and  a  measured  quan- 
tity of  resin  soap  is  added  to  the  solution,  while  the  liquid  is  constantly  stirred  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  lumps. 

It  is  necessary  that  we  should  know  exactly  how  much  resin  is  contained  in  a  • 
gallon  of  the  soap  and  how  much  in  the  dilution,  because  the  number  of  gallons  or 
buckets  used  for  an  engine  of  pulp  is  to  be  regulated  accordingly. 

The  solution  must  be  diluted  enough  to  be  passed  through  a  No.  60  wire-cloth, 
which  retains  all  the  impurities. 

From  3  to  6  pounds  of  resin,  or  a  corresponding  number  of  gallons  of  the  diluted 
soap,  are  usually  sufficient  to  size  100  pounds  of  medium  qualities  of  paper  of  ordi- 
nary weight.  For  very  thin  paper  or  short,  weak  fibres,  the  quantity  may  have  to 
be  increased ;  while  less  of  it  answers  for  heavy  pajDcr,  made  of  strong  pulp. 

Either  two  large  tubs,  in  which  the  size  can  be  mixed  and  diluted,  or  one  tub  and 
a  receiver,  into  which  the  former  one  can  be  drawn  off,  should  be  on  hand,  so  that  one 
can  be  used  while  the  solution  is  prepared  in  the  other.  They  should  stand  high 
enough,  to  permit  the  size  to  be  drawn  off  through  stop-cocks  at  the  bottom. 

Starch  is  not  necessary,  but  improves  the  size.  It  envelops  the  resin,  retards  its 
precipitation  through  alum,  and  thereby  makes  the  sizing  more  uniform ;  being  per- 
fectly white,  it  covers  to  some  extent  the  more  or  less  dark  color  of  the  resin  and 
even  the  faults  of  a  deficient  solution. 

About  1  pound  of  starch  for  every  pound  of  resin  is  the  average  quantity  used 
in  most  mills ;  but  it  can  be  considerably  increased  without  injury,  if  desired. 

61.  Proportions  Used  in  Different  Mills. — The  author  used  to  make  a  very  thin 
pulp-sized  letter-paper  with  a  resin  size,  which  was  prepared  in  a  caldron  heated  by 
steam  in  an  outside  jacket. 

150  pounds  of  crystallized  soda  were  dissolved  in  about  90  quarts  of  water,  and 
250  pounds  of  powdered  resin  added  to  the  boiling  liquid.  It  was  kept  stirred  up 
with  a  paddle,  and  the  whole  operation  occupied  from  four  to  six  hours. 

A  portion  of  the  soap  thus  obtained  was  diluted  with  warm  water,  and  mixed 
with  a  similar  quantity  of  dissolved  starch,  producing  a  very  fluid  yellow  liquid, 
which  could  easily  be  filtered  through  a  No.  60  wire-cloth  into  the  beaters. 

At  a  mill  in  this  country  where  writing  paper  is  made  as  a  specialty,  size  is  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner  : 

In  a  wooden  tub,  furnished  with  a  steam-pipe,  are  dissolved  125  pounds  of  soda- 
ash  with  10  buckets  (30  to  35  gallons)  of  water,  and  set  to  boiling  by  the  direct 
introduction  of  steam.    The  liquid  (which  tests  about  30  degrees  Baume  at  boiling 


88 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


heat)  is  constantly  stirred,  and  two  barrels  or  about  500  pounds  of  powdered  resin 
are  added,  until  after  about  two  hours  the  soap  is  finished  or  the  resin  "cut." 

If  too  much  water  has  not  been  used,  the  soap  floats  on  the  solution,  and 
after  having  rested  about  half  an  hour,  but  yet  hot,  is  passed  through  a  No.  60  wire- 
cloth  into  several  barrels,  which  serve  as  reservoirs,  while  the  surplus  soda  solution 
and  the  impurities  remain  on  the  bottom. 

High  pressure  steam  is  used  for  boiling  in  this  way,  because  less  of  it  is  required, 
and  the  solution  not  so  much  diluted  as  by  steam  of  lower  pressure. 

Five  pounds  of  porous  alum  for  every  100  pounds  of  paper  are  dissolved  in  water, 
and  poured  through  a  No.  60  wire-cloth  into  the  engine.  After  the  alum  has  had 
time  to  become  thoroughly  mixed  up,  1\  buckets  of  the  resin  soap,  containing  about 
18  pounds  of  resin,  are  likewise  added  to  the  400  pounds  of  pulp  in  the  engine. 

About  6  pounds  of  starch,  previously  dissolved  in  about  ten  times  their  volume 
of  water,  are  also  strained  through  No.  60  wire-cloth  into  the  engine,  independently 
of  the  resin,  but  at  about  the  same  time. 

The  two  methods  just  described  are  very  different,  and  yet  both  furnish  good 
results. 

We  consider  the  solution  of  resin  in  concentrated  solution  of  soda-ash  preferable, 
for  the  reasons  before  stated,  but  would  recommend  the  use  of  a  jacket  instead  of  the 
direct  introduction  of  steam. 

The  object  of  the  starch,  to  retard  the  precipitation  of  the  resin  by  enveloping  it 
with  its  own  slimy  mass,  can  hardly  be  accomplished  if  the  soap  and  starch  are  sepa- 
rately added  to  the  pulp,  and  it  seems  therefore  advisable  to  unite  them  in  one  common 
solution.  Care  must,  however,  be  taken  in  either  case  to  dissolve  the  starch  in  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  water,  as  it  will  otherwise  congeal  into  flakes  or  spots  in  the  pulp. 

62.  Addition  of  Glue  and  Other  Substances. — Many  paper-makers  have  tried  to 
give  to  engine-sized  paper  the  qualities  of  that  sized  in  the  sheet,  by  adding  glue  dis- 
solved in  water  to  resin  soap,  or  by  pouring  it  separately  into  the  engine  just  before 
emptying  the  latter.  It  is  possible  that  a  stifler  paper  is  thereby  produced,  but  the 
two  methods — the  one  of  sizing  the  fibre  and  the  other  of  coating  the  paper — are  so 
different,  that  the  possibility  of  either  one  replacing  the  other  is  excluded,  no  matter 
what  materials  are  used. 

Numerous  other  substances  have  been  recommended  as  additions  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  resin  soaj),  and  we  shall  mention  two  of  them,  because  they  are  used 
by  experienced  and  successful  paper-makers. 

The  paper  of  the  plates  in  this  book  is  sized  with  a  resin  soap,  prepared  accord- 
ing to  the  latter  of  the  two  methods  described  in  Art.  61,  and  containing  also  12 
pounds  of  "gum  tragacantli^^  for  every  500  pounds  of  resin. 

This  gum  tragacanth  is  the  effusion  of  a  Persian  plant ;  it  does  not  dissolve  as 
freely,  and  gives  a  thicker,  more  gelatine-like  mass  than  most  other  gums.  It  is  dis- 
solved in  water  and  added  to  the  finished  soap  while  yet  hot,  and  before  it  is  screened. 
It  acts  in  a  manner  similar  to  glue,  and  gives  to  the  jiaper  similar  qualities. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  C GLOBING,  ETC. 


89 


The  froth  which  is  frequently  seen  in  the  engine  and  on  the  machine  when 
resin-size  is  used,  is  very  objectionable,  and  numerous  expedients  are  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  its  appearance.  It  is  well  known  that  oil,  poured  on  the 
pulp,  will  kill  the  froth ;  and  some  paper-makers,  probably  guided  by  this  fact,  add 
"tallotv"  to  the  resin  soap.  An  experiejiced  manufacturer  uses  7  pounds  of  tallow 
with  every  barrel  of  resin,  and  states  that  he  is  never  troubled  with  froth. 

63.  Quality  of  the  Resin,  and  Use  of  the  Solution. — It  is  only  natural  that  the 
darker  kinds  of  resin  should  be  used  for  lower  grades,  and  the  whiter  ones  for  the 
finest  qualities  of  paper. 

The  solution  of  resin  must  be  strained  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  pulp,  but  it  is 
indifferent  when  this  is  done. 

If  any  chlorine,  or  hydrochloric,  or  sulphuric  acid  remains  in  the  pulp,  it  will 
immediately  form  chloride  of  sodium  or  sulphate  of  soda  with  the  soda  of  the  solution, 
and  the  resin,  left  by  its  dissolving  agent,  is  precipitated. 

We  might  as  well  throw  pure  resin  into  the  engine  as  to  allow  the  soda  to  be 
neutralized  by  acid  contained  in  the  pulp. 

It  is  difficult  to  decide  by  theory  if  the  resin  soap  or  the  solution  of  alum  should 
be  first  mixed  with  the  pulp.  Experience  is  here  again  the  best  guide ;  and  it  will  be 
found,  on  inquiry,  that  most  of  our  leading  paper-makers,  if  not  all,  mix  the  alum 
first  thoroughly  with  the  pulp,  and  pour  in  the  soap  only  a  short  time  before 
emptying  the  engine. 

64.  Alums  and  their  Comparative  Values. — No  matter  which  one  of  the  different 
kinds  of  alum  is  used,  it  should  always  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  filtered  through  a 
wire-gauze  or  flannel  into  the  engine  to  keep  the  impurities  out. 

The  "crystallized  ahim^^  used  in  paper-mills  consists  of  sulphate  of  potash, 
sulphate  of  alumina,  and  water. 

K0,S03    +    Al,03,3SO,    +  24HO 

Sulphate  of  Sulphate  of  Water, 

potash.  alumina. 

The  sulphate  of  alumina  is  the  only  useful  part  of  it,  while  the  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash and  water  are  simply  spectators  and  remain  unchanged. 

The  sulphuric  acid  of  the  sulphate  of  alumina  joins  the  soda  and  forms  sulphate 
of  soda  (NaO,S03),  which  remains  soluble,  and  the  alumina  and  resin  are  deposited 
on  the  fibres  as  a  resinous  alumina. 

Alumina  (AI2O3)  is  the  sesquioxide  of  the  white  and  light  metal  aluminium. 
Kaolin  or  clay,  which  is  nearly  pure  alumina,  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  its  com- 
bination with  sulphuric  acid,  the  sulphate  of  alumina,  dissolves  easily. 

This  sulphate  of  alumina  is  manufactured  by  boiling  clay  and  sulphuric  acid 
directly  together.  The  cakes  thus  obtained  are  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of  alumina, 
clay,  and  water,  which  varies  considerably  in  its  proportions  of  these  substances. 

12 


90 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BT  MACHINEBY. 


The  atomic  weights  of  the  diflferent  parts  composing  crystallized  alum, 
K0,S03  +  A1A,3S03  +  24HO,  are— 

Sulphate  of  Potash,    KOSO3    =  (39  +  8)  +  (16  +  24)  =  87 

Sulphate  of  Alumina,  Al^SSO^  =  (2  X  13.6  +  24)  +  3  (16  +  24)  =  171.2 
Water,  2440       =24(8  +  1)  216 

474.2 

Of  the  useful  sulphate  of  alumina  there  are  171.2  parts  in  474.2  or 

^^^•^  ^       =  36.01  in  100  pounds. 
474.2 

The  sulphate  of  alumina  in  cakes  is,  as  said  before,  variable,  but  can  be  put  at  44 
pounds  in  100  pounds,  while  the  balance  consists  of  clay,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water. 

Concentrated  alum  or  aluminous  cake  contains  more  sulphate  of  alumina  than 
crystallized  alum.  It  is  therefore  cheaper  at  the  same  price  per  pound,  but  its  un- 
certain composition  has  caused  it  to  be  excluded  from  many  mills  where  crystals  are  pre- 
ferred, because  their  proportion  of  sulphate  of  alumina  is  always  very  nearly  the  same. 

Of  late  years  an  improved  aluminous  cake  has  been  sold  by  the  Pennsylvania 
Salt  Manufacturing  Company  as  Natrona  porou^  alum^ 

While  the  aluminous  cake  necessarily  contains  all  the  impurities  of  the  clay  used 
for  its  manufacture,  besides  some  clay  not  combined  with  acid,  and  also  free  sulphuric 
acid,  this  new  alum  is  made  in  a  way,  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  the  presence  of 
either  of  them. 

Pure  hydrate  of  alumina,  precipitated  with  carbonic  acid  from  an  alkaline  solu- 
tion, which  has  been  prepared  from  the  imported  mineral  kryolith,  forms  the  basis 
instead  of  clay. 

This  hydrate  of  alumina  is  mixed  with  the  proj^er  quantities  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  water  in  copper  vessels,  and  their  affinity  is  so  great  that  the  temperature  of  the 
mixture  rises  far  above  boiling  heat,  and  causes  violent  ebullition.  When  the  action 
has  somewhat  subsided  a  certain  amount  of  soda  is  added,  and  the  fluid  mass  is  rapidly 
discharged  into  large  flat  pans,  wherein  it  soon  solidifies  into  cakes  about  4  inches 
thick,  and  weighing  half  a  ton  or  more.  They  are  removed  when  cold,  broken  up, 
and  crushed  through  suitable  mills  into  fragments  of  the  size  of  chestnuts,  or  a  little 
larger,  in  which  form  the  alum  is  packed  and  sold.  The  peculiar  vesicular  character 
of  the  alum  is  produced  in  part  by  the  nature  of  the  chemical  action  and  partly  by 
the  skilful  manipulation  of  the  operations.  Upon  this  porosity  depends  its  ready 
solubility. 

The  alum  is  stated  to  be  composed  of —  , 

Alumina,  16     parts  1    „         01,         /.  a  1 

ri  ,  1     .    A  -J      1,  J  A  A-i        <<     r  57  parts  Sulphate  of  Alumina. 

Sulphuric  Acid,  anhydrous  or  dry,  .41  j 

Soda,  2.20  " 

Water,   40.80  " 

100.00 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


91 


The  sulphuric  acid  is  partially  neutralized  by  the  soda,  so  that  the  sulphate  of 
alumina  is  basic ;  the  ratio  of  acid  to  alumina  being  usually  2//^  equivalents  of  acid 
to  1  equivalent  of  alumina. 

This  basic  condition  of  the  porous  alum  is  its  principal  advantage.  It  excludes 
the  possibility  of  the  presence  of  free  acid,  which  is  so  destructive  to  some  colors, 
especially  to  ultramarine. 

It  is  perfectly  white,  and,  being  manufactured  of  pure  materials,  contains  none 
of  those  salts  of  iron  which  color  many  other  alums. 

65.  Necessary  Quantity  of  Alum. — If  any  part  of  the  resin  soap  should  remain  in 
the  paper  as  such,  it  would  not  only  be  lost  as  sizing  material,  but  would  make  spots, 
after  the  paper  had  been  dried.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  add  enough  alum  to  pre- 
cipitate all  the  resin,  and  rather  a  surplus  of  it  than  not  enough. 

The  resin  soap,  being  of  an  alkaline  nature,  turns  red  litmus  paper  blue,  but  alum, 
through  its  sulphuric  acid,  turns  blue  litmus  paper  red,  and  it  can  thus  easily  be 
discovered  if  the  pulp  contains  a  surplus  of  one  or  the  other. 

If,  after  the  alum  and  resin  soap  have  been  added  to  the  pulp  for  some  time,  red 
litmus  paper  is  turned  blue,  the  quantity  of  alum  has  not  been  sufficient,  and  must 
be  increased  until  the  pulp  turns  blue  litmus  paper  red. 

It  is  frequently  stated,  that  one  pound  of  alum  for  every  pound  of  resin  is  suffi- 
cient, but  this  evidently  cannot  hold  good  in  all  cases,  as  the  quantity  of  the  alone- 
effective  sulphate  of  alumina  in  different  alums  is,  as  shown  before,  not  the  same. 

As  a  surplus  of  alum  cannot  do  any  harm  unless  it  contains  free  acid,  the 
safest  way  is,  to  use  too  much,  until  the  necessary  quantity  has  been  found  by  ex- 
periment. 

The  presence  of  alum  improves  or  brightens  a  good  many  colors,  and  whenever 
paper  of  such  tints  is  made,  alum  is  used  in  profusion. 

66.  Sizing  with  Wax. — Even  the  cleanest  resin  is  not  perfectly  colorless,  and  for 
very  fine  papers  it  may  perhaps  be  desirable  to  use  white  wax  in  its  place. 

It  is  dissolved  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  soda,  testing  five  degrees 
Baume,  and  is  also  precipitated  with  alum. 

This  method  has  been  invented  by  Mr.  Canson,  but  we  are  not  aware  that  its 
use  has  extended  beyond  the  mills  of  the  inventor. 

67.  Clay. — Clay,  China  clay,  kaolin,  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  pure  alumina 
(AI2O3) ,  have  been  added  to  paper  pulp  during  late  years  to  such  an  extent,  that  even 
manufacturers  who  do  not  approve  of  the  practice  have  been  compelled  to  use  them 
for  the  sake  of  competition,  as  they  lessen  the  cost  of  the  paper. 

Clay  or  alumina,  has,  as  said  before,  a  strong  affinity  for  vegetable  matter  and 
adheres  very  closely  to  the  fibres. 

A  small  addition  of  it  to  the  pulp  may  improve  some  kinds  of  paper,  by  making 
them  smoother  and  more  opaque,  but  if  large  quantities  are  put  in,  the  paper  becomes 
brittle,  of  little  strength,  and  the  consumers  are  deceived  by  the  heavy  weight.  The 
public,  who  have  at  last  become  aware  of  this  imposition,  ask  for  paper  containing  little 


92 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


or  no  clay,  and  test  the  sheets  by  burning.  The  quantity  of  ashes  left  indicates  the 
proportion  of  this  fire-proof  material. 

In  some  cases  the  interests  of  the  paper-maker  and  his  customer  are  both  served 
by  heavy  additions  of  clay ;  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  sugar  refiners,  who  want  as 
heavy  a  paper  as  they  can  get  to  wrap  sugar  loaves  in. 

The  j)aper  manufacturer  sells  clay  to  the  sugar  refiner  as  paper,  and  the  latter 
sells  it  to  the  consumers  as-  sugar ! 

The  author  has  made  paper  for  this  purpose  which  contained  much  more  than 
one-half  of  its  weight  of  clay,  and,  when  lighted,  burned  slowly  with  a  weak  flame, 
leaving  a  sheet  of  nearly  the  same  thickness  as  the  original  paper,  composed  almost 
wholly  of  clay,  behind.  It  was  made  of  a  pulp  of  strong  linen  or  hemp,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  resin  soap,  or  size,  alum,  and  well-powdered  clay. 

The  better  the  clay  is  divided,  the  closer  will  it  adhere,  and  the  more  of  it  will 
remain  in  the  paper.  If  thrown  into  the  engine  as  powder,  some  of  it  balls  together, 
is  never  divided,  does  not  adhere  to  the  fibres,  and  will  consequently  be  lost  before 
the  paper  is  formed. 

A  tub  furnished  with  water  and  steam-pipe,  with  an  agitator  moved  by  belt  and 
pulley,  and  a  faucet  a  little  above  the  bottom,  should  be  used  for  the  dissolution  of 
the  clay.  A  certain  number  of  buckets  of  clay  are  put  in  ;  the  tub  is  filled  up  with 
water;  the  agitator  started  and  steam  admitted.  The  clay,  suspended  in  water  by  this 
process,  is  drawn  off  through  the  faucet  into  buckets,  and  poured  through  fine  wire- 
gauze  into  the  engine.  Even  the  best  clay  contains  impurities,  which  will  thus  be 
retained  on  the  wire. 

If  the  tub  can  be  placed  high  enough,  the  clay  may  be  conducted  to  the  beaters 
directly  through  troughs. 

The  clay  must  be  put  into  the  engine  before  the  size,  so  that  it  can  reach  the 
fibres,  and  will  be  fastened  better  on  to  them  by  the  size  surrounding  both. 

It  is  a  mistake,  to  add  the  clay  after  the  pulp  has  been  sized,  because  the  resinous 
alumina,  which  is  already  formed,  surrounds  the  fibres,  prevents  the  clay  from 
reaching  them,  and  a  large  proportion  of  it  must  be  lost. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  a  larger  quantity  of  size  will  fasten  the 
clay,  previously  j^oured  in,  better  than  a  smaller  one.  The  secret  of  holding  the  clay 
consists  in  the  perfect  division  into  its  smallest  particles,  and  in  the  addition  of  size  in 
quantities  proportionate  to  those  of  the  clay  used.  Long  and  tough  pulp  is  better 
suited  to  carry  it  than  short  or  weak  fibres. 

Some  manufacturers  even  go  so  far  as  to  mix  th-e  clay  with  the  resin  soap  itself, 
but  this  is  not  necessary  and  may  injure  the  size. 

Every  kind  of  paper  will  carry  a  small  proportion  of  clay,  say  5  to  15  per  cent., 
without  size.  Papers  of  coarse  or  medium  qualities  are  not  injured  by  such  an  addi- 
tion, but  large  amounts  of  clay  must  always  be  considered  as  a  deterioration.  The 
paper  on  which  this  is  printed  contains  about  10  per  cent,  of  clay. 

Even  if  great  care  be  taken  with  it,  a  portion  of  the  clay  will  be  lost,  because  its 


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93 


heavier  weight  causes  it  to  deposit,  wherever  it  finds  a  chance  to  do  so ;  and  the  more 
there  is  used,  the  larger  is  the  proportion  lost.  By  burning  paper  in  a  red-hot 
crucible,  weighing  the  sheet  first  and  then  the  ashes,  the  real  amount  of  clay  con- 
tained in  it,  is  easily  ascertained. 

In  some  mills  alum,  but  no  size,  is  used  to  bind  the  clay.  The  clay  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  make  up  the  alum  or  sulphate  of  alumina,  cannot  alone  envelop 
the  clay  in  any  way,  or  hold  it  by  any  other  power;  they  are  therefore  utterly 
wasted. 

Mr.  T.  H.  Tieman  has  obtained  a  patent  of  invention  for  the  addition  of  alum 
and  fresh  lime  conjointly  to  paper  pulp.  The  sulphate  of  alumina  or  alum,  in  solu- 
tion with  fresh  lime,  delivers  the  sulphuric  acid  to  the  lime,  for  which  it  has  a  greater 
affinity.  Clay  or  alumina  and  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum  are  the  result.  Being 
precipitated  from  the  solution  of  salts,  they  will  be  divided  into  their  smallest  possible 
parts  and  well  mixed  with  the  pulp. 

The  inventor  claims,  therefore,  that  a  larger  proportion  of  these  substances  enters 
into  the  composition  of  the  paper  than  of  any  clay  or  similar  materials  which  are  only 
mechanically  mixed  with  the  pulp. 

(d)  Coloring. 

68.  White  Paper. — If  white  paper  is  to  be  made,  some  color  is  necessary  to  make 
it  appear  so,  even  if  the  whitest  pulp  is  used  for  it.  No  laundress  ever  attemj^ts  to 
finish  up  linen  without  adding  some  blue  to  it. 

Mr.  Richard  Herring,  in  his  work  on  Paper  and  Paper-making,  relates  the  acci- 
dent which  originated  the  bluing  of  paper,  as  follows : 

"The  practice  of  bluing  the  paper  pulp  had  its  origin  in  a  singularly  accidental  circumstance, 
which,  not  merely  as  an  historical  fact,  but  as  forming  an  amusing  anecdote,  is  perhaps  worth  men- 
tioning. It  occurred  about  the  year  1746,  at  a  paper-mill  belonging  to  Mr.  Buttenshaw,  whose  wife, 
on  the  occasion  in  question,  was  superintending  the  washing  of  some  fine  linen,  when,  accidentally,  she 
dropped  her  bag  of  powdered  blue  into  the  midst  of  some  pulp  in  a  forward  state  of  preparation  ;  afld 
so  great  was  the  fear  she  entertained  of  the  mischief  she  had  done,  seeing  the  blue  rapidly  amal- 
gamated with  the  pulp,  that  all  allusion  to  it  was  studiously  avoided,  until,  on  Mr.  Buttenshaw's 
inquiring  in  great  astonishment  what  it  was  that  had  imparted  the  peculiar  color  to  the  pulp,  his  wife, 
pei'ceiving  that  no  very  great  damage  had  been  done,  took  courage  and  at  once  disclosed  the  secret, 
for  which  she  was  afterwards  rewarded  in  a  remai'kable  manner  by  her  husband,  who  being  naturally 
pleased  with  an  advance  of  so  much  as  four  shillings  per  bundle,  upon  submitting  the  improved  make 
to  the  London  market,  immediately  purchased  a  costly  scarlet  cloak  (somewhat  more  congenial  to 
taste  in  those  days,  it  is  presumed,  than  it  would  be  now),  which  he  carefully  conveyed  home,  and 
presented  with  much  satisfaction  to  the  sharer  of  his  joy." 

In  a  scientific  sense,  white  is  the  combination  of  all  the  colors  contained  in  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  the  source  of  all  our  light ;  but  it  seems  that  the  objects  which  we 
recognize  as  white,  like  snow  and  milk,  have  really  a  slight  bluish  tint.    Pure  water 


94 


MANVFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


or  ice,  which  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  white  or  of  no  particular  color,  has,  accord- 
ing to  Bunsen,  a  light-blue  hue.  Several  colors  are  used  for  the  production  of  this 
shade  in  paper. 

69.  Prussian  Blue,  ferrocyanide  of  iron  (3FeCy,2Fe2Cy3),  is  produced  by  mix- 
ing yellow  prussiate  of  potash  or  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  (2KCy,FeCy  +  3H0) 
with  copperas  or  sesquisuljiliate  of  iron  (2FeO,3S03  +  7H0) .  Three  parts  of  prus- 
siate of  potash  with  two  of  copperas  and  two  of  oxygen  give  a  blue  dej)osit  and  sul- 
phate of  jjotasli  in  solution. 

3(2KCy,FeCy)  +  Aq.  +  2(Fe,0„3S03)  +  Aq.  +  20  =  3FeCy,2Fe,Cy3  +  BCKO.SO,)  +  Aq. 

Prussiate.  Water.  Copperas.  Water.  Oxygen.  Blue.  Sulphate  of  Water. 

potash. 

The  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas  contain  iron  as  a  protoxide,  but, 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  take  up  oxygen  and  become  a  greenish,  dirty-looking  mass 
of  the  sesquisulphate  of  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  (Fe^03,3S03) . 

This  transformation  is  necessary,  but  has  hardly  ever  been  completed  in  the 
commercial  copperas,  and  a  supply  of  oxygen  must  therefore  be  provided  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  perfect  Prussian  blue. 

The  proportions  used  above  for  the  explanation  of  the  chemical  changes  are  not 
those  of  the  materials  to  be  used,  as  the  large  quantity  of  water  in  the  copperas 
(nearly  one-half  of  their  weight)  has  not  been  taken  into  account. 

Yellow  prussiate  being  very  expensive,  and  copperas  cheap,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
an  excess  of  the  latter  rather  than  to  risk  the  loss  of  a  portion  of  the  prussiate. 

All  the  apparatus  required  is  an  open  tub,  made  of  a  well-cleaned  ordinary  oil 
barrel,  one  head  of  which  has  been  taken  out,  while  the  other  one  serves  as  bottom. 

To  draw  off  the  color,  we  bore  a  vertical  row  of  I  inch  holes,  about  3  inches 
apart,  measured  perpendicularly,  into  the  staves.  The  first  hole  may  be  about  10 
inches  from  the  top,  and  the  lowest  one  6  inches  from  the  bottom,  and  they  are  put 
alternating  into  three  adjoining  staves,  so  as  not  to  weaken  any  one  too  much.  Each 
hole  is  provided  with  a  wooden  spigot. 

We  fill  this  tub  about  one-fourth  full  of  hot  water,  in  which  we  dissolve  25 
pounds  of  yellow  prussiate.  In  another  half-barrel  or  bucket  we  dissolve  30  pounds 
of  copperas,  also  in  hot  water,  pour  it  into  our  tub,  which  contains  the  solution  of 
prussiate,  and  fill  up  with  water  to  the  top,  stirring  the  mass  with  a  stick  all  the 
time.  There  appears  instantly  a  light-blue  substance,  which  deposits  as  soon  as  the 
liquid  is  left  to  itself. 

After  the  mixture  will  have  stood  for  several  hours,  a  greenish  watery  liquid 
fills  the  upper  and  a  blue  deposit  the  lower  part  of  the  barrel.  This  liquid  is  drawn 
off  by  opening  the  holes,  beginning  with  the  top  one,  until  the  blue  color  appears.  It 
is  well  to  convince  yourself  that  all  the  prussiate  has  been  used  up,  by  adding  a  few 
drops  of  a  fresh  solution  of  copperas  to  the  first  fluid  drawn  off.  If  blue  color  is 
thereby  produced,  it  is  an  evidence  that  we  have  not  used  enough  copperas,  and 
should  put  more  of  its  solution  into  the  barrel. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLORING,  ETC. 


96 


We  can  also  try  if  too  much  copperas  has  been  used,  by  adding  a  few  drops  of 
prussiate  sohition  to  some  of  the  liquid.  If  a  heavy  deposit  of  blue  is  obtained,  the 
proportion  of  copperas  may  be  reduced,  though  a  small  surplus  of  this  cheap  material 
cannot  cause  much  loss. 

In  place  of  the  drawn-off  liquid  we  add  a  fresh  supply  of  water,  mix  it  with  the 
blue  deposit,  let  it  settle,  and  run  the  clear  fluid  off  again  as  before.  In  stirring  the 
mass  we  bring  it  in  frequent  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  thereby  change 
it  gradually  into  a  deeper  blue. 

The  continued  washing  with  fresh  water  also  removes  all  traces  of  copperas 
which  may  yet  adhere  to  it,  and  the  oftener  it  is  repeated,  the  better. 

This  slow  method  of  oxidizing  the  protoxide  of  iron  into  the  sesquioxide 
(FCjOg)  into  (FCgOj),  or  rather,  the  cyanide  (Fe2Cy2)  into  sesquicyanide  (FCgCys),  can 
be  improved  upon,  by  adding  to  the  first  mixture  some  acid,  which  supplies  the  oxygen 
quicker  than  the  air. 

Nitric  acid  would  be  the  best,  but  is  expensive;  and  a  solution  of  bleaching 
powders,  which  is  always  on  hand,  will  do  well  enough.  The  hypoclilorous  acid 
(CIO)  in  the  solution  sets  its  own  and  the  oxygen  of  water  free,  by  forming  hydro- 
chloric acid  (HCl),  exactly  as  in  bleaching,  and  explained  under  that  head  in  article 
35.  The  solution  of  about  1  pound  of  bleaching  powders  is  necessary  for  2  pounds 
of  copperas. 

After  having  used  either  one  of  these  acids  with  the  original  mixture,  clear 
water  must  be  added  several  times  to  wash  the  deposit,  as  before  described. 

The  blue  sediment  is  then  taken  out,  put  into  some  other  vessel  or  tub,  and 
mixed  with  enough  water  to  fill  it  to  a  certain  point  (usually  the  top). 

If  the  blue  were  kept  uncovered,  it  would  constantly  lose  water  by  evaporation, 
the  solution  would  become  more  concentrated  all  the  time,  and  a  certain  volume  of  it, 
which  is  measured  out  to  every  beating  engine  for  the  production  of  paper  of  a  certain 
color,  would  tint  it  deeper  every  day.  The  vessel  must  therefore  be  well  covered, 
and  the  blue  deposit  obtained  from  every  25  pounds  of  prussiate  (or  any  other  quan- 
tity which  may  be  fixed  upon  as  the  regular  dose)  must  be  diluted  so  as  to  fill  it  to 
the  same  point. 

For  common  white  papers,  such  as  news  and  others,  this  blue  answers  equally 
as  well  as  ultramarine,  and  does  not  cost  one-third  as  much.  The  manufacture  of  the 
lower  grades  of  white  paper  is  often  so  much  hurried  that  sufiicient  time  is  not  taken 
to  wash  out  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  while  their  presence  in  the  pulp  would  be 
destructive  to  ultramarine,  it  would  rather  im^^rove  Prussian  blue. 

Any  alkaline  solution  would  injure  this  blue ;  the  resin  soap  should  therefore 
only  be  added  to  pulp  containing  it,  after  the  alum  has  been  mixed  with  it ;  or  the 
paper  may  be  colored  after  it  has  been  completely  sized.  A  surplus  of  alum  will 
then  serve  as  a  mordant,  and  intensify  the  color. 

Prussian  blue  is  manufactured  and  sold  in  pieces,  which  must  be  redissolved,  but 


96 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


its  preparation,  as  described,  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  made  by  any  one  of  the  work- 
men, and  certainly  at  less  expense. 

Prussian  blue  has  always  a  greenish  tint,  which  is  objectionable  in  fine  papers, 
and  ultramarine  is  therefore  generally  used  for  them. 

70.  Ultramarine. — For  centuries  past  the  ultramarine  color  has  been  used  by 
artist  painters.  It  was  prepared  from  a  rare  mineral,  the  lapis  lazuli,  by  powdering 
and  washing  it. 

Professor  Gmelin,  of  Heidelberg,  analyzed  this  mineral  carefully,  and  succeeded, 
after  numerous  experiments,  in  producing  artificial  ultramarine,  very  little  inferior  to 
the  natural  one. 

The  manufacture  is  too  difiicult  and  complicated,  to  be  carried  on  in  a  paper- 
mill,  and  therefore  beyond  the  intended  limits  of  this  book ;  but  it  may  be  stated  as  a 
matter  of  general  information  that  the  raw  materials,  from  which  ultramarine  is  made, 
are  sand,  alum,  clay,  charcoal,  sulphur,  and  soda.  All  of  them  are  cheap ;  and  let  us 
hoj)e  that  this  valuable  color  will  be  obtained  in  future  times  at  rates  considerably 
below  the  present  ones. 

Artificial  ultramarine  is  chemically  composed  of  silicate  of  alumina  and  soda 
with  quinsulphuret  of  sodium  : 

4NaO,4A203,9SiO,  +  NaS^. 

The  coloring  power  of  ultramarine  varies  very  much,  according  to  its  manufac- 
ture. It  is  a  very  heavy  material  which  does  not  dissolve,  but  colors  the  mass  of  the 
paper  by  being  diffused  through  it  in  small  particles.  The  blue  which  is  most  uni- 
formly distributed,  or  the  one  reduced  to  the  finest  powder,  must  be  most  effective  if 
the  mass  from  which  it  is  made  is  equal  to  the  others.  If  the  powder  has  not  been 
carefully  sifted,  some  larger  particles  remain  in  it,  and  either  leave  the  pulp  through 
the  wire  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  machine,  where  they  may  settle  down  through 
their  weight.  If  they  remain  in  the  pulp  they  must  inevitably  show  on  the  paper  as 
blue  spots. 

Carl  Furstenan  has  found  by  microscopic  examination  of  fine  brands  of  ultra- 
marine [Centralblatt  fiir  Deutsche  Papierfabrication,  1871,  No.  21)  that  they  con- 
sist of — 

1.  A  blue-colored,  drossy,  gloss-like  mass. 

2.  Lively  dark-blue  grains,  of  which  the  coarse  ones  have  a  white  kernel. 

3.  Unaffected  kaolin  and  an  uncolored  enamel-like  substance. 

The  more  it  contains  of  the  fine  grains  No..  2,  the  better  the  color,  and  the  less 
will  the  ultramarine  be  affected  by  alum.    All  of  No.  3  is  useless. 

With  the  aid  of  the  microscope  the  difference  in  the  fineness  can  easily  be  dis- 
covered, but  the  only  conclusive  practical  test  is  made  in  the  engine.    The  ultra- 
marine, of  which  the  smallest  quantity  is  required,  to  produce  a  certain  shade  of  blue  • 
in  the  same  quantity  and  kind  of  pulp,  is  the  best. 

To  keep  out  impurities  and  coarse  grains,  it  should  always  be  filtered  through  a 
silk  or  flannel  bag. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLORING,  ETC. 


97 


This  is  done  by  filling  in  the  necessary  quantity,  and  then  pressing  it  with  the 
hands  through  the  bag  while  immersed  in  a  basin  of  water. 

All  acids  decompose  ultramarine.  If  the  pulp  shows  any  acid  reaction,  be  it 
from  chlorine,  alum,  or  any  other  source,  it  should  be  made  neutral  or  basic  by  the 
addition  of  some  soda  before  the  ultramarine  is  put  in. 

Since  it  colors  the  pulji  only  by  thorough  mechanical  division,  it  should  be  given 
plenty  of  time  to  mix  with  it. 

71.  Indigo  Blue,  formerly  much  used,  is  now  hardly  ever  found  in  paper  mills. 

72.  Aniline  Colors. — Aniline  is  a  substance  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen  (C12H7N),  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  from  coal-tar.  It  forms  the  basis 
of  a  number  of  so-called  aniline  colors,  which  are  made  from  it,  and  amongst  them 
also  a  blue  one. 

I.  Aniline  Blue,  as  obtained  by  the  trade,  looks  rather  like  a  bronze  paste  than 
crystals,  as  it  is  commercially  called.  It  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  one  ounce  to  a 
gallon,  at  the  mill,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  pulp  contains  no  free  acid,  as  the 
color  will  be  destroyed  by  it. 

It  requires  no  preparation,  and  is  very  extensively  used  for  colored  papers. 
With  aniline  red  it  makes  a  handsome  purple,  and,  like  most  aniline  colors,  produces 
shades  of  a  tender  hue  heretofore  unknown. 

Ultramarine  mixes  only  "  mechanically"  with  the  pulp,  but  aniline  blue  in  solu- 
tion pervades  the  stuff  thoroughly,  and  may  be  called  "chemically"  combined  with  it. 

II.  Aniline  Red. — The  paper,  which  is  made  without  any  admixture  of  blue, 
always  has  a  yellow  tint,  and  the  blue  will  not  therefore  produce  the  pure  white,  which 
we  desire. 

Paper  colored  with  blue  alone  looks  slightly  greenish,  and  to  overcome  this  a  very 
small  proportion  of  some  red  is  used. 

The  aniline  red  answers  this  purpose  very  well ;  it  is  dissolved  like  the  blue,  one 
ounce  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  and  put  directly  into  the  engine.  It  is  rather  of  blood 
color,  but  can  easily  be  turned  more  purple  by  the  addition  of  some  alum. 

III.  A  large  variety  of  other  shades  of  aniline  colors  besides  blue  and  red  are 
manufactured.  The  yellow  and  orange  aniline  colors  cannot,  however,  compete  with 
the  chrome  colors  as  to  intensity,  and  only  find  favor  for  light  tints. 

73.  Pink  or  Cochineal  Red. — Pink  or  cochineal  is  made  from  the  shells  of  a  very 
minute  insect  found  in  Mexico. 

Many  methods  of  extracting  the  carmine  are  recommended  and  used,  but  we 
shall  content  ourselves  with  describing  one  of  them,  as  many  paper-makers  prefer  to 
buy  the  extract  ready  made.  Parties  engaged  in  making  colored  papers  as  a  specialty 
will,  however,  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  prepare  the  color  from  the  shells. 

Ten  pounds  of  cochineal,  ground  into  small  pieces  in  a  coffee-mill,  are  mixed 
with  25  to  50  gallons  of  water,  made  slightly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  about  | 
pound  of  crystals  of  soda,  and  boiled  in  a  tub  furnished  with  a  steam-pijje.  The 
solution  thus  obtained  is  filtered  through  a  wet  felt  into  a  tub,  provided  with  spigots 


98 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


in  the  same  way  as  the  barrel  wherein  the  Prussian  blue  is  made, — but  the  tub  must 
be  more  caj^acious  than  the  barrel. 

The  shells  are  treated  three  times  in  this  way,  and  the  three  extracts  gathered 
into  the  same  tub. 

To  this  solution  we  add  8|  pounds  of  crystals  of  bichloride  of  tin. 

The  pink  color  carmine  is  thereby  precipitated.  After  a  few  days'  rest  we  draw 
the  clear  liquid  off ;  mix  up  with  fresh  water ;  draw  off  again,  and  take  the  carmine 
out  into  glass  bottles  or  carboys. 

The  cochineal  may  be  boiled  again  with  alkaline  water,  to  see  if  any  more  car- 
mine can  be  extracted. 

74.  Brazil- Wood. — Brazil  or  Pernambuco  wood  is  commercially  obtained  in  rasped 
condition,  and  can  be  tested  as  to  its  quality  by  simply  immersing  it  in  water.  The 
genuine  article  is  heavier  than  water,  and  will  sink,  while  other  woods,  if  mixed  in, 
will  float  on  the  surface. 

The  wood  is  first  washed  in  lukewarm  water ;  then  boiled  for  a  couple  of  hours 
in  about  ten  times  its  weight  of  pure  water,  and  the  solution  is  filtered  through  a  felt. 
An  addition  of  \  pound  of  protochloride  of  tin  for  every  pound  of  wood  precipitates 
the  pink  color.  The  sediment  is  washed  in  the  same  way  as  carmine  until  all  traces 
of  acid  have  disappeared.    This  first  decoction  gives  a  fine  red  color. 

To  extract  the  remainder  we  have  to  add  two  parts  of  soda  for  100  of  wood  to 
the  water  in  which  it  is  to  be  boiled.  This  second  extract  is  to  be  treated  like  the 
first  one,  but  furnishes,  according  to  Proteaux,  only  an  orange-brown  color. 

If  only  one  medium  quality  is  desired,  additional  extracts  may  be  made,  as  long 
as  a  precipitate  can  be  obtained,  and  mixed  together  in  one  receiver. 

This  color  imj^roves  by  age. 

75.  Violet  color  is  obtained  from  logwood  by  treating  it  in  the  way  indicated  for 
Brazil-wood. 

76.  Chrome  Yellow  and  Orange. — Chrome  yellow  is  made  from  a  mixture  of 
chromate  of  potassa  (KO,2Cr03),  and  acetate  of  lead,  called  sugar  of  lead 
(PbO,C4H303+3HO),  or  nitrate  of  lead  (PbO,N05).  When  both  solutions  are  in 
contact,  a  soluble  acetate  or  nitrate  of  potassa,  and  an  insoluble  powder  of  chromate 
of  lead  of  a  beautiful  yellow  color  (PbO,Cr03),  are  formed. 

The  nitrate  of  lead  is  now  manufactured  and  sold  to  the  trade  in  white  crystals, 
and  has  nearly  altogether  taken  the  place  of  sugar  of  lead,  because  its  action  is  more 
intense. 

One  pound  of  sugar  of  lead,  with  about  \  pound  bichromate  of  potash,  gives  a 
good  yellow  color. 

The  chromic  acid  and  lead  form  also  another  union,  consisting  of  two  atoms  of 
lead  and  one  of  chromic  acid  (2P10,Cr03)  of  a  red  color. 

The  bichromate  of  potassa  is  manufactured  in  orange  or  reddish-colored  crystals, 
and  the  color  changes  more  into  orange  as  larger  proportions  of  it  are  used,  while  the 
yellow  becomes  more  intense  with  every  increase  of  the  nitrate  of  lead. 

It  seems  that  some  of  the  red  subchromate  of  lead  is  formed,  wherever  an  abun- 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


99 


dance  of  bichromate  is  present,  and  the  red  and  yellow  together  give  orange.  The 
same  object  can  be  attained  by  increasing  the  j^roportion  of  lead  in  the  acetate  or 
nitrate,  and  thus  transforming  it  partially  into  subacetate  or  subnitrate.  For  this 
purpose  one  pound  of  sugar  of  lead  is  boiled  for  one-half  hour  with  one  pound  of 
oxide  of  lead  or  litharge.  The  undissolved  litharge  separates  as  a  deposit,  and  the 
liquid  contains  some  subacetate  of  lead  in  the  place  of  sugar  of  lead.  It  more  readily 
forms  the  subchromate  of  lead,  and  thus  produces  a  very  pretty  orange.  Rain-water 
is  preferable  to  well-water  for  this  operation. 

The  pulp  is  colored  orange  or  yellow  by  dissolving  the  different  chemicals  sepa- 
rately in  hot  water,  and  then  putting  them  in  the  engine,  giving  time  enough,  how- 
ever, to  the  first  one  to  impregnate  the  stuff  thoroughly  before  the  other  is  added.  A 
uniform  distribution  all  through  th-e  mass  is  evidently  best  obtained  when  the  color 
is  formed  in  the  engine. 

Sometimes,  however,  especially  for  light  shades,  it  is  preferred  to  finish  the  color 
outside,  and  then  put  it  in  the  engine,  because  it  can  thus  be  better  controlled. 

For  a  good  light  yellow,  for  instance,  1^  pounds  of  bichromate  and  3  pounds  of 
acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead,  per  100  pounds  of  paper,  are  separately  dissolved  in  hot 
water ;  then  mixed ;  the  clear  liquid  drawn  off,  and  the  yellow  sediment  put  at  once 
in  the  engine. 

If  orange  is  to  be  made,  a  larger  proportion  of  bichromate  has  to  be  used ;  both 
are  dissolved  and  mixed  in  the  same  way.  After  the  clear  liquid  is  taken  off,  some 
soda  is  added  to  the  color,  and  it  is  left  undisturbed  for  some  time. 

The  longer  it  is  allowed  to  rest  undisturbed  the  deeper  orange  will  it  become. 

77.  Orange  Mineral  is  an  orange-red  combination  of  lead  and  oxygen,  similar  to 
red  lead,  but  prepared  with  more  care.  It  is  simply  thrown  into  the  engine  to  inten- 
sify the  orange,  or  to  make  salmon  and  similar  shades  with  the  chrome  yellow. 

It  gives  a  deej)  and  intense  color,  and  is  very  extensively  used. 

78.  Buff  for  common  papers  is  made  from  copj)eras  (sesquisulphate  of  iron)  by 
neutralizing  its  sulphuric  acid  with  a  solution  of  some  alkali,  caustic  or  burnt  lime, 
or  milk  of  lime,  thereby  precipitating  a  kind  of  iron  rust  or  oxide  of  iron.  To  obtain 
all  the  color  or  iron  from  the  copperas,  it  is  necessary  to  add  milk  of  lime  until  the 
pulp  is  neutral,  and  neither  turns  blue  litmus  paper  red  nor  the  red  paper  blue.  If, 
by  mistake,  too  much  lime  has  been  added,  some  vitriol  will  neutralize  it  again. 

Ten  pounds  of  copperas  per  hundred  of  paper  thus  give  a  leather  buff  color. 

Proteaux  recommends  for  light  buff,  5  parts  sulphate  of  iron,  3  parts  of  soda, 
or  2  of  chloride  of  lime. 

For  dark  buff,  16  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron,  9  parts  of  soda,  or  6  parts  of  chloride 
of  lime. 

Fine  papers  are  colored  with  a  buff  composed  of  chrome  orange,  orange  mineral, 
and  ochre. 

79.  Venetian  Red  is  an  earth  color,  and  can  be  used,  if  well  washed,  for  delicate 
brown  and  leather  colors,  hut  large  quantities  of  it  in  the  original  state  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  lower  grades  of  })aper,  such  as  wrapping,  for  instance. 


100 


MANUFACTUEE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


80.  Yellow  Ochre,  as  well  as  numerous  other  earth  colors,  must  be  enumerated 
here  as  belonging  to  the  stock  of  coloring  materials  of  a  paper-mill. 

81.  Quercitron  or  Oak  Bark  is  frequently  used  for  mixed  colors,  such  as  tea  or 
browns  and  others.  It  is  furnished  to  the  trade  rasped,  and  its  specific  gravity  varies 
with  the  quantity  of  wood  which  is  attached  to  the  bark.  The  wood  contains  no 
color,  and  is  useless,  but  heavier  than  the  bark.  It  is  therefore  safer  to  measure  the 
desired  quantity  than  to  weigh  it,  as  the  same  volume  of  the  rasped  bark  is  more 
likely  to  return  the  same  color  than  the  same  weight.  One  gallon  of  bark  well  boiled 
in  two  gallons  of  water  will  furnish  a  good  extract.  It  gives  alone  an  inferior  yellow 
color,  but  is  mostly  used  with  a  solution  of  copperas,  which  changes  it  into  olive- 
green. 

82.  Nutgalls  or  gallic  acid  (C7HO3  +  2H0)  are  crushed  into  small  pieces  and 
boiled  with  water.  The  clear  solution  is  drawn  off  and  gives,  with  copperas,  an  ink- 
like gray  color. 

83.  Black. — Lampblack  is  freed  from  greasy  matters  by  repeated  washings,  with 
soda-ash  solution  first  and  clean  water  afterwards;  the  liquid  is  decanted,  and  the 
deposited  black  powder  mixed  with  the  size,  before  the  latter  is  added  to  the  pulp. 

Perfectly  black  paper  is  hardly  ever  made  in  the  pulp,  but  gray  and  its  combi- 
nations are  often  jjroduced  with  this  lampblack. 

84.  Colored  rags  or  paper  used  to  be  the  only  means  of  coloring  the  pulp,  before 
the  art  of  bleaching  was  introduced,  and  even  now  some  paper-makers  sort  out  the 
blue  and  red  rags  separately  for  this  purpose.  This  is  much  more  justified  for  the 
red  ones,  as  their  madder  color  is  very  difficult  to  destroy  or  bleach.  Their  absence 
benefits  the  balance  of  the  rags,  while  their  color  can  be  made  useful  for  red  paper. 

The  blue  color  is  easily  bleached  out  of  the  rags,  and  is  not  worth  preserving, 
considering  that  we  must  have  clean  white  pulp  to  make  a  well-colored  paper. 

In  some  cases,  where  a  very  deep-colored  blue  paper  is  wanted,  or  for  blue  wrap- 
ping paper,  it  may  however  be  of  advantage  to  use  blue  rags  which  have  been  neither 
boiled  nor  bleached. 

85.  Combination  of  Colors. — We  have  in  the  foregoing  lines  enumerated  the  pri- 
mary colors  used  by  the  paper-maker ;  but  to  comprehend  their  endless  combinations 
and  to  perfect  them  intelligently,  the  nature  of  colors  generally  should  be  understood. 

If  the  rays  of  the  sun — the  source  of  all  our  light — are  dissolved  by  a  prism 
into  their  component  parts,  we  find  them  to  consist  of  all  the  colors  known  to  us. 
This  leads  to  the  conclusion,  confirmed  by  experiments,  that  all  these  colors  mixed 
together  must  j^roduce  white. 

All  the  sounds  which  we  hear  can  be  reduced  to  three  fundamental  ones,  and 
likewise  we  have  three  primary  colors  corresponding  with  them.  They  are  yellow, 
red,  and  blue,  with  a  relative  strength  of  0,  5,  and  8  respectively. 

If  3  yellow,  5  red,  and  8  blue  rays  could  be  directed  on  some  solid  body  which 
would  reflect  them  thoroughly,  the  body  would  appear  to  us  white,  and  if  they  were 
all  absorbed,  it  would  look  black. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


101 


The  primary  colors, 

Yellow  and  red,  in  the  proportions  of  3  to  5,  give  orange ; 
Red  and  blue,  iu  the  proportions  of  5  to  8,  give  purple ; 
And  3  yellow  with  8  blue  make  green. 

These  are  the  secondary  colors. 

Mixtures  of  the  primary  colors  in  different  proportions  produce  all  kinds  of 
shades,  and  their  combinations  with  secondary  colors  furnish  the  countless  varieties 
with  or  without  names  which  daily  meet  and  surprise  our  eyes. 

Green  paper  is  made  by  mixing  blue  and  yellow  with  the  pulp,  while  purple  is 
produced  from  blue  and  red,  &c. 

Knowledge  and  experience  are  necessary  to  decide  the  composition  of  a  color 
when  no  other  guide  than  a  sample  is  given,  as  is  very  often  the  case.  If  a  combi- 
nation has  been  found  which  seems  to  answer,  it  is  important  to  find  out  if  the  f)ulp 
in  the  engine  is  exactly  like  that  of  the  sample  before  it  is  emptied  and  run  over  the 
machine. 

Colored  paper,  when  finished,  appears  very  different  from  the  pulp  in  the  engine, 
and  a  comparison  of  a  sample  of  paper  with  the  stuff  in  the  beaters  would  be  quite  use- 
less.' Both  the  new  paper  or  pulp  and  the  sample,  must  be  in  the  same  condition  of 
moisture  and  preparation  when  compared.  Some  of  the  colored  stuff  in  the  engine 
can  either  be  made  into  paper  on  a  mould,  and  then  pressed  and  dried  by  hand,  or  a 
piece  of  the  sample  must  be  transformed  into  pulp.  The  latter  method  is  the  quickest, 
and  therefore  usually  followed :  the  piece  of  paper  is  macerated  in  water  and  mashed 
up  or  chewed  by  the  operator,  so  as  to  form  a  paste,  and  some  of  the  new  pulp  is 
pressed  out  by  hand,  until  both  are  at  .about  the  same  state  of  moisture.  A  compar- 
ison of  them  shows  if  we  have  too  much  or  too  little  of  some  color  in  the  engine,  and 
enables  us  to  improve  the  composition,  until  it  is  as  desired. 

86.  Examples  of  Combination  of  Colors. — We  have  given  a  list  of  the  principal 
primary  colors  and  a  guide  for  their  use,  so  that  any  man  of  ordinary  ability  should 
be  able  to  make  colored  paper ;  but  we  might  fill  a  book  with  prescriptions  of  combi- 
nations without  giving  all  possible  varieties. 

Some  mixtures,  however,  are  made  in  such  large  quantities  that  a  knowledge  of 
them  may  be  useful  to  many  manufacturers. 

We  give  them  as  they  are  made  by  paper-makers  who  have  gained  for  their 
colored  papers  a  merited  reputation. 

Yellow-gold  envelojpe  of  fine  quality  is  made  of — 

Bichromate  of  potash,      .       .       .       .10  pounds, 

Nitrate  of  lead,  18  " 

Orange  mineral,  56  " 

Porous  alum,  .        .       .       .       .       .    30  " 

each  separately  dissolved,  and  added  to  400  .pounds  of  paper  pulp. 


102 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


Orange-red  gold  envelope  is  obtained  from — 


Bichromate  of  potash,      ....     7  pounds, 

Nitrate  of  lead,        .       .       .       .       .  10|  " 

Orange  mineral,       .       .       .       .       .  60  " 

Porous  alum,    .       .       .       .       .       .  20  " 

each  separately  dissolved,  and  added  to  400  pounds  of  paper  pulp. 
Buff  envelope  of  a  fine  deep  shade  is  made  of — 

Bichromate  of  potash,      ....      3  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  lead,  5  " 

Orange  mineral,       .       .       .       .       .  10  " 

American  ochre,      .       .       .       .       .  20  " 

Porous  alum,    .       .       .       .       .       .  30  " 


Some  half-stuff  of  red  jute-bagging, 

for  400  pounds  of  paper. 

Tea-color  is  made  from  a  decoction  of  quercitron  bark,  made  as  before  described. 
This  liquid  is  poured  into  the  engine,  and  two  pounds  of  copperas  are  added  for  every 
gallon  of  the  bark  extract.    A  little  ultramarine  may  be  used  to  brighten  the  color. 

Drab. — Venetian  red,  well  washed,  added  to  a  pulp  of  tea-color,  made  as 
described,  will  give  a  fine  drab. 

Brown  is  always  composed  of  several  other  colors,  a  very  fine  dark  tea-color 
brown,  containing  tea,  buff,  drab,  and  ink-gray,  is  made  of — 


Quercitron  bark  liquid,  .  .  .  .15  gallons. 
Bicarbonate  of  soda, .....     2  pounds, 

Venetian  red,   4  " 

Nutgalls  in  extract,  .       .       .       .       .      2^  " 

Copperas,        .       .       .       .       .       .    18  " 

Porous  alum,  30  " 


for  400  pounds  of  jDaper. 

The  large  proportion  of  alum,  prescribed  in  all  these  examples,  serves  as  a  mor- 
dant, and  also,  with  the  addition  of  resin  soap,  for  sizing. 

The  tinted  paper  of  this  book  was  made  by  M.  M.  Curtis  &  Brother,  at  Newark, 
Delaware.    It  is  colored  with — 

Yellow. French  ochre,       .       .       .       .    1\  pounds, 
Orange  mineral,       .       .       .       .       .1  " 

for  325  pounds  of  paper ;  each  separately  stirred  up  in  water  and  strained  through 
No.  60  wire-cloth  into  the  beater. 

87,  Mixing  the  Coloring  Materials  with  the  Pulp. — If  the  paj)er  is  sized  in  the 
pulp,  resinous  alumina  surrounds  the  fibres  and  prevents  a  thorough  penetration  by 
the  coloring  materials  which  may  be  afterwards  added.  These  materials  are,  then, 
only  loosely  held,  and  a  portion  must  be  lost  on  the  machine. 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOEING,  ETC. 


103 


If  they  are"  added  to  the  pulp  before  it  is  sized,  they  become  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  fibres,  and  with  them  enveloped  by  the  size. 

Though  the  section  on  sizing  precedes  that  on  coloring  in  this  book,  the  pulp 
should  always  be  colored  before  it  is  sized,  except  in  cases  where  the  alum  or  resin 
soap  would  injure  the  colors  or  be  injured  by  them. 

All  coloring  materials  should,  as  well  as  the  water,  size,  and  clay,  be  strained 
before  they  are  admitted  to  the  pulp. 

While  the  pulp  is  being  sized  and  colored,  the  finishing  touch  is  given  by  the 
engineer,  who  then  examines  it,  as  before  described,  and  empties  it  into  a  stuff-chest. 

If  a  patent  engine  is  used,  the  last  grinding  is  given  to  the  rags  by  it,  and  the 
pulp  is  only  mixed  and  prepared  for  them  by  the  beaters. 

(e)  Patent  Pulping  Engines. 

88.  Kingsland's  Pulping  Engine. — T.  Kingsland,  of  Franklin,  Essex  County, 
N.  J.,  received  patents  of  invention  in  1856,  renewed  1871,  for  an  engine  which  was 
designed  to  do  nearly  all  the  work  of  the  biters,  except  the  washing  and  mixing. 
In  the  mills  of  T.  &  R.  Kingsland  this  engine  is  furnished  with  rags,  which  have 
been  beaten  little  more  than  half-stuff,  and  the  papers,  made  by  it,  range  among  the 
best  qualities  of  book  and  flat-cap  in  the  New  York  market. 

The  "half-stuff"  descends  through  the  pipe  b.  Fig.  44,  and  passes  into  a  circular 
chamber,  the  sides  of  which  are  formed  of  two  plates  o  q,  provided  with  steel  teeth ; 
these  are  stationary,  and  can  be  brought  closer  together  or  placed  further  apart  by 
the  handle  and  gearing,  g,  a,  c,  e,  so  as  to  grind  the  "  half-stuff"  in  jndp  of  the  de- 
sired length  of  fibre.  The  threaded  bolts  v,  passed  through  lugs  d,  bring  up  the 
plate  o,  while  f  forms  guides  for  e.  Between  o  and  q  a  plate  p  is  placed ;  it  has  steel 
teeth  on  both  sides,  and  is  rotated  rapidly  between  them  by  a  shaft  and  belt.  This 
shaft  works  in  journals,  and  has  no  collars,  so  that  it  can  adjust  itself  to  the  varying 
distances  between  the  outer  plates.  The  pulp,  when  ground,  passes  through  a  pipe  i 
in  a  continuous  stream  into  the  intermediate  receiver  h,  and  from  that  directly  through 
a  shute  J,  or  over  a  strainer  k,  to  a  "stuff-chest"  in  any  convenient  location. 

Fig.  47  shows,  that  the  steel  knives  are  disposed  in  a  manner,  to  give  to  the 
plates  the  appearance  of  millstones.  The  plates  o  and  q  represent  stationary  stones, 
and  p  the  revolving  one ;  the  pulp  enters  at  the  centre  of  o,  proceeds  to  the  circum- 
ference, and  leaves  near  the  centre  of  Q.  « ' 

The  steel  knives  are  cast  in  the  plates,  from  which  they  project  about  I  inch, 
and  the  space  between  them  is  filled  with  wood.  This  wood  is  gradually  chiselled 
out,  as  the  knives  wear  down  ;  but  when  all  of  it  is  removed  and  the  knives  are  used 
up  to  the  base,  the  plate  can  no  longer  do  any  work,  and  a  new  one  must  be  put  in 
its  place. 

The  plates  are  of  30  inches  diameter,  and  carry  more  and  stronger  knives  for 
hard  stock,  such  as  rags,  than  for  short  material  like  straw  or  imperfections. 


]04 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  revolving  plate  p,  studded  with  knives  on  both  sides  in  the  manner  shown 
by  Fig.  47,  should  make  from  200  to  250  revolutions  per  minute,  and  moves  with 
its  shaft  to  and  fro  between  the  stationary  plates  o  and  q.  The  pulp  surrounding 
it,  if  of  uniform  composition,  will  keep  it  in  the  middle  between  the  two.  The  space 
between  the  revolving  and  stationary  plates,  or  the  distance  between  the  knives,  is 
increased  or  decreased  at  will  by  turning  the  crank  g. 


Fio.  44. 


Fig.  44  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  engine. 
Fig.  45  is  au  elevation  of  tlie  front  or  feed  side. 
Fr&.  46  is  a  vertical  cross-section. 
Fig.  47  is  a  plan  of  the  plate  o. 


The  crank  g,  with  the  worm-gearings  and  threaded  bolts  v,  by  means  of  which 
the  front  plate  o  is  moved  in  or  out,  may,  as  they  perform  the  same  functions,  be 
compared  w^itli  the  lighter  of  an  ordinary  beating  engine. 

It  is  here  where  the  man  in  charge  has  to  use  his  judgment,  an'd  he  is  guided  by 
the  apjiearance  of  the  pulp  flowing  through  pipe  i  and  trough  h,  as  well  as  by  the 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOBING,  ETC. 


105 


sound.  By  putting  his  ear  to  the  crank  g  he  can  distinctly  hear  the  noise  made  by 
the  grinding  plates. 

If  the  pulp  on  leaving  the  engine  is  too  short,  the  front  plate  o  must  be  moved 
out,  and  if  it  is  not  ground  enough,  the  plate  should  be  moved  in. 

It  is  claimed  for  this  engine  that  it  saves  power,  though  it  consumes  about  20  to 
25  horse-power  on  rag  pulp,  also  that  it  furnishes  a  more  uniform  paper,  and  a  larger 
quantity  of  it,  than  ordinary  beaters. 

To  understand  its  action  we  shall  now  follow  the  pulp  on  its  passage  through 
the  engine. 

The  pulp  enters  from  a  pipe  b  through  the  centre  of  the  front  plate  o,  and  is 
quickly  spread  against  the  periphery  by  the  centrifugal  power,  which  is  communicated 
to  it  by  the  revolving  plate  p.  The  motion  of  the  knives  in  the  centre  is  slow,  but 
increases  with  the  diameter,  and  thus  tends  to  throw  the  principal  part  of  the 
grinding  action  near  to  the  circumference.  But,  after  the  pulp  has  passed  around  the 
revolving  disk,  and  entered  between  it  and  the  plate  q,  its  flow  to  the  discharge-pipe 
I  is  retarded  as  much  by  the  same  centrifugal  power  as  it  was  before  increased.  In 
fact,  the  pulp  would  hardly  be  able  to  leave  the  engine,  if  the  discharge  opening  were 
not  somewhat  out  of  the  centre,  and  if  the  pulp  were  not  fed  from  a  trough,  a  few 
feet  above  the  engine,  through  pipe  b.  The  height  from  which  the  pulp  descends 
determines  therefore,  to  some  extent,  the  quantity  which  can  be  passed  through  the 
engine. 

Centrifugal  power  is  proportionate  to  the  speed  and  the  weight  of  the  moved 
body.  Large  or  heavy  fibres  are  therefore  forced  to  the  circumference,  and  held  there, 
while  small  or  light  ones  are  able  to  escape. 

The  current  also  carries  reduced  fibres  much  easier  and  faster  than  long  or 
heavy  ones,  and  thus  the  finished  pulp  marches  right  through  the  engine,  while  the 
coarse  portion  is  held  back  till  it  has  been  ground  into  the  desired  state. 

If  a  knot  or  lump  of  fibres  should  be  fed  into  the  grinder,  the  disk  p  would  yield 
and  move  back  towards  the  plate  q,  to  make  room  for  the  passage  of  the  knot  towards 
the  periphery,  where  it  would  be  quickly  reduced  by  the  energetic  action  of  that  part 
of  the  engine.  While  this  reduction  of  the  knot  is  going  on  at  the  front  side,  the 
revolving  disk  p  is  crowded  over  against  the  discharge  opening,  and  reduces  the  out- 
flow of  pulp.  The  yielding  of  the  disk  thus  not  only  prevents  all  danger  of  clogging, 
but  also  the  escape  of  any  unground  fibre. 

If  the  fibre  is  tender  and  easily  reduced,  it  will  flow  freely  through  the  grinder, 
and  occupy  but  little  more  space  on  the  feed-side  than  on  the  discharge-side  of  the 
disk,  but  if  the  fibre  is  tough  and  slowly  reduced,  it  will  accumulate  on  the  feed-side, 
crowd  the  disk  back,  and  retard  its  escape.  The  stronger  fibre  is  through  this  action 
subjected  to  severer  grinding  than  the  weaker  one — as  it  should  be. 

This  is  considered  one  of  the  principal  features  of  the  invention,  and  explains 
why  it  should  furnish  uniform  stulf. 

14 


106 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Sometimes  strings,  rags,  or  pieces  of  wood  or  metal  are  carried  into  the  engine 
with  the  pulp  and  obstruct  its  flow. 

All  such  substances  lodge  usually  in  the  centre  of  the  plate,  and  whenever  their 
presence  is  indicated  by  a  decreased  discharge  of  pulp,  the  plate  o  must  be  unscrewed 
and  taken  off,  and  the  obstructions  removed. 

As  the  engine  requires  considerable  power,  the  driving  belt  should  not  be  less 
than  12  inches  wide. 

In  order  to  do  its  duty  well,  it  must  be  kept  in  good  condition ;  the  plates  must 
be  sharp,  and  promptly  renewed  when  worn  out.  It  has  been  frequently  condemned 
when  nothing  but  the  neglect  of  the  owner  was  the  cause  of  the  failure. 

After  the  pulp  has  been  washed  and  mixed  with  size  and  color,  and  about  half 
beaten  in  the  ordinary  engines,  it  is  emptied  into  a  stuff-chest.  A  stuff-pump  takes 
it  from  there  and  throws  it  up  into  a  horizontal  trough  above  the  Kingsland  engine, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  pipe  b.  This  trough  has  an  overflow  regulated  by 
a  sliding  gate,  over  which  the  surplus  pulp  returns  through  a  spout  into  the  chest. 
The  supply  is  thus  governed  to  some  extent  by  this  sliding  gate. 

Mr.  Kingsland  uses  a  capacious  plunger-pump  with  rubber  valves,  which  offer 
no  obstruction  to  the  passage  of  strings  and  rags,  but  ordinary  stuflf-pumps,  with 
brass  ball  valves,  supply  also  many  of  these  engines,  and  answer  very  well. 

The  pulp  flows  from  the  discharge  pipe  i,  either  directly  to  the  machine  or  into 
another  stuff-chest.  In  the  first  case  the  patent  engine  should  be  connected  with  the 
paper  machine,  and  driven  by  the  same  motor,  so  that  both  will  stop  and  start  together. 

If  the  patent  engine,  as  is  usually  the  case,  is  located  on  the  same  floor  with  the 
beaters,  and  driven  by  the  same  shaft,  it  must  be  made  to  empty  into  an  independent 
stuff-chest,  from  which  the  machine  may  be  supplied  by  means  of  a  second  stuff- 
pump. 

The  last  work  of  the  beaters  is  to  brush  the  pulp  so  that  it  will  felt  freely,  and 
produce  a  uniform  sheet  on  the  wire.  This  most  important  and  difficult  part  of  the 
engineer's  work  may  be  done  with  advantage  by  the  Kingsland  engine,  and,  if 
managed  properly,  it  will  do  it  well. 

89.  Jordan's  Pulping  Engine. — Mr.  Joseph  Jordan,  at  present  superintendent  of 
the  Ashland  Paper  Mill  at  Manayunk,  Philadelphia,  and  Mr.  Thomas  Eustice,  of 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  have  received  a  patent  of  invention,  dated  May  18th,  1858, 
and  recently  extended,  for  a  pulp-beating  engine  similar  in  principle  to  that  of  Kings- 
land's.  The  following  cuts  (Fig,  48  and  Fig.  49)  represent  the  engine  complete  and 
in  detail,  as  built  by  Messrs.  Smith,  Winchester  &  Co.,  South  Windham,  Connecticut. 

The  half-stuff  is  fed  in  through  the  box  i,  which  is  an  ordinary  regulating  box, 
like  those  which  are  used  for  paper  machines.  The  pulp  is  thrown  by  a  stuff-pump 
into  the  middle  partition,  flows  into  the  engine  from  one  of  the  side  partitions,  and  the 
surplus  returns  to  the  chest  through  the  other.  The  copper  gates,  by  which  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  pulp  from  the  middle  to  the  two  sides  is  regulated,  are  operated  from 
outside  by  the  knobs  a  a.  From  this  box  the  half-stuff  flows  through  the  inlet  a  into 


108 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FR03I  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


the  conical  case  p,  which  may  be  called  the  plate ;  a  conical  roll  e,  fitting  this  plate, 
revolves  inside  of  it,  carried  by  bearings  c  and  d,  and  is  provided  with  stnffing  boxes 
E  and  F,  Bearing  c  is  stationary,  and  allows  the  shaft  to  move  longitudinally  through 
it;  bearing  d  is  connected  with  the  shaft,  and  can  be  moved  with  it  towards  p  by  means 
of  the  screw  g,  which  is  itself  supported  by  the  stay-bolts  h  h  and  the  nut-bracket  k. 

The  surfaces  of  the  roll  e,  and  plate  p  can  be  brought  nearer  to  or  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  few  turns  of  the  hand- wheel  l  attached  to  the  screw  g. 

The  conical  shape  of  the  roll  and  plate,  with  the  speed  of  the  roll,  causes  the 
pulp  to  be  drawn  through  the  engine  from  the  small  to  the  large  end  by  centrifugal 
power,  and  the  roll  shaft  follows  this  movement  as  far  as  the  screw  g  will  permit. 

Three  outlets  m  m' m'  are  provided  for  the  discharge  of  the  pulp ;  the  one  which 
is  used,  is  furnished  with  an  elbow-pipe  m,  and  the  other  ones  are  plugged.  They 
serve  to  regulate  the  quality  of  the  pulp ;  if,  for  instance,  a  very  nice  and  uniform 
quality  is  required,  the  roll  is  drawn  off  from  the  plate,  so  as  to  lightly  brush  the 
pulp,  and  the  upper  outlet  is  used  for  its  discharge.  By  drawing  at  this  point,  the 
flow  of  the  pulp  through  the  engine  is  somewhat  retarded,  which  keeps  it  longer 
between  the  knife-surfaces,  and  thus  helps  to  accomplish  our  object.  If  an  extra 
quality  is  not  required,  it  is  customary  to  use  one  of  the  lower  outlets,  and  thus  in- 
crease the  production  of  pulp. 

The  cast-iron  head  n  is  fastened  to  p  with  numerous  screws,  s  is  the  stuff-pump 
which  forwards  the  pulp  from  the  chest  to  the  box  i. 

The  cast-iron  roll  e  is  49  inches  long,  with  a  diameter  of  12  inches  at  the  small 
end,  and  of  26  inches  at  the  large  end.  The  part  of  the  knives  which  projects  above 
the  surface  of  the  roll,  is  of  steel,  and  the  balance  of  iron.  They  are  planed  to  fit  the 
dovetailed  grooves  in  the  roll,  into  which  they  are  driven  from  the  large  end. 

Thirty-six  knives  or  fly-bars  are  as  long  as  the  roll,  and  another  set  of  the  same 
number  extends  only  over  one-half  of  the  roll,  thus  doubling  the  cuts  or  the  grinding 
capacity  at  the  larger  end. 

The  knives  in  the  bed-plate  p  are  made  of  steel  of  the  best  quality ;  they  are 
elbow-shaped,  and  form  three  sections,  with  o7,  76,  and  108  knives  respectively. 
They  are  not  fastened  to  the  casting,  but  only  secured  with  wooden  filling  and  keys. 

The  wood  between  the  knives  of  the  plate  and  roll  does  not  consist  of  solid  pieces, 
but  of  flat  thin  strips,  which  are  glued  together.  Whenever  the  knives  are  worn 
down,  so  that  some  of  the  filling  must  be  cut  out,  it  is  only  necessary  to  start  the 
glued  joints  with  a  chisel,  and  take  out  one  of  the  strips. 

At  Messrs.  Warren  &  Co.'s  Cumberland  Mills,  near  Portland,  Maine,  the  knives 
are  made  of  chrome  steel,  which  is  harder  and  has  been  found  to  last  longer  than  any 
other. 

It  is  impossible  to  set  the  knives  in  this  engine  perfectly  true  with  ordinary  tools 
alone ;  they  must  be  ground  with  sand  in  the  engine,  or  turned  in  a  lathe  before  they 
can  be  put  in  operation. 

The  roll  makes  from  200  to  300  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  engine  con- 


I II 1 


110 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


sumes  from  15  to  30  horse-power,  according  to  its  speed,  the  quality  and  previous 
preparation  of  the  pulp. 

90.  Respective  Advantages  of  the  Kingsland  and  Jordan  Engines. — The  Jordan 
Engine  is  claimed  to  have  the  following  advantages  over  Kingsland's : 

The  pulp  in  the  Kingsland  engine  must,  just  before  leaving,  occupy  a  smaller 
space  in  the  centre  of  the  hack-plate,  is  necessarily  concentrated  there,  and  subjected 
to  a  severe  grindmg ;  while  in  Jordan's  the  diameter,  and  with  it  the  speed  of  the 
pulp,  is  constantly  increasing,  the  pulp  is  drawn  out  as  it  advances,  and  better 
opened  for  the  action  of  the  knives.  The  Jordan  engine  therefore  furnishes  a  more 
free  and  uniform  pulp. 

In  the  Kingsland  engine  the  knives  cut  nearly  at  right  angles,  while  at  acute 
ones  in  Jordan's.    The  latter  can  therefore  do  more  work  with  the  same  power. 

Jordan's  engine  has  a  grinding  surface  of  22  i  square  feet,  or  more  than  double 
as  much  as  Kingsland's,  and  one  of  them  can  supply  two  paper-machines. 

The  Kingsland  engine  is  claimed  to  be  preferable  to  Jordan's  for  the  following- 
reasons  : 

The  revolving  disk  regulates  itself  and  yields  to  knots  or  lumps,  while  the  cone 
of  the  Jordan  engine  can  only  be  regulated  by  the  screw. 

The  plates  can  easily  be  renewed  at  the  mill  with  but  little  loss  of  time,  while 
the  knives  of  the  Jordan  engine  must  be  taken  out  and  renewed  singly,  and  then 
either  turned  on  a  lathe  or  ground  with  sand. 

The  mills  cannot  afford  to  stop  while  the  Jordan  engine  is  being  refitted,  and  it 
is  therefore  necessary  to  have  a  surplus  Jordan  engine  on  hand,  ready  to  take  the 
place  of  any  worn  out  one,  while  a  few  knife-plates  only  are  to  be  provided  for  the 
Kingsland  engine. 

Kingsland's  engine,  being  smaller,  requires  less  power  and  is  sold  cheaper. 

Both  of  these  patent  engines  are  excellent  to  brush  the  pulp ;  but,  though  they 
are  used  for  rag-pulp  in  some  of  our  largest  paper-mills,  they  have  found  more  favor 
for  straw,  wood,  and  old  paper  than  for  hard  stock. 

They  are  hardly  ever  seen  in  either  wrapping  or  writing-paper  mills,  and  seem 
to  be  more  suitable  for  medium  qualities,  such  as  news  and  book  papers. 

About  one  hundred  engines  of  each  kind  are  in  operation  and  owned  by  experi- 
enced and  successful  paper-makers. 

Each  system  has  its  friends,  who  give  it  the  preference  over  its  competitor.  We 
have  tried  to  set  forth  the  merits  and  demerits  of  both,  so  that  the  reader  may  be 
able  to  judge  for  himself  and  make  his  selection  accordingly. 

91.  Gould's  Patent  Engine. — The  latest  pulping  engine,  invented  by  Mr.  Simeon 
L.  Gould,  of  Gardiner,  Maine,  consists,  according  to  the  specifications  of  his  reissued 
patent,  dated  July  16th,  1872,  of  a  stationary  horizontal  plate,  on  which  another  one 
revolves,  fastened  on  a  vertical  shaft.  These  plates  seem  to  be  similar  in  construction 
to  those  of  the  Kingsland  engine,  but  they  are  larger  and  located  on  the  bottom  of  a 
large  iron  tub  or  vat.    The  pulp  enters  between  the  plates,  through  an  opening  near 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLOEING,  ETC.  Ill 


the  centre  of  the  upper  revolving  plate,  and  is  thrown  out  at  the  periphery.  The 
vat  has  the  form  of  an  apple,  and  the  pulp,  on  leaving  the  grinders  at  the  periphery, 
follows  the  hyperboloidal  sides,  and  is  directed  from  all  parts  towards  the  centre  of 
the  revolving  plate,  producing  an  active  circulation,  which  makes  the  use  of  the 
paddle  unnecessary. 

This  engine  differs  from  those  previously  described  principally  in  being  filled 
and  emptied  periodically,  like  an  ordinary  beater.  It  does  the  work  of  the  latter 
completely,  as  it  requires  no  mixing  engines,  and  is  furnished  with  half-stuff  directly 
from  the  drainers. 

(f)  Stuff- Chest  and  Stuff-Pump. 

92.  StufF-Chest. — The  pulp  is  emptied  from  the  beaters  into  large  circular  re- 
ceivers, furnished  with  agitators.  These  stuff-chests  are  usually  made  of  wood,  the 
staves  being  from  2i  to  3  inches  thick  and  from  5  to  8  inches  wide — a  little  wider  at 
the  bottom,  so  that  the  iron  hoops  can  be  driven  down  to  tighten  the  tub  as  the  staves 
shrink.  A  chest  of  about  12  feet  diameter,  6  to  8  feet  high,  wnll  hold  sufficient  pulp 
to  make  about  1000  to  1200  ]30unds  of  paper. 

Where  durability  and  security  against  fire  are  considered  of  more  importance 
than  cheap  construction,  they  are  built  of  brick  and  cement,  like  drainers. 

An  iron  or  wooden  shaft  stands  upright  in  the  centre,  extending  above  the 
cover  of  the  chest.  It  carries  at  its  upper  end  a  large  bevel-wheel,  moved  by  a  pinion 
and  pulley  on  a  horizontal  shaft. 

Two  horizontal  arms,  which  extend  nearly  across  the  whole  chest,  are  fastened  to 
this  upright  shaft :  one  near  the  bottom  and  the  other  above  the  middle.  They  serve 
as  supports  to  a  number  of  upright  wooden  posts  of  nearly  the  height  of  the  chest. 

The  object  of  this  agitator  is  to  keep  the  stuff  in  motion,  so  that  the  heavy  parts 
cannot  separate  themselves  and  lodge  on  the  bottom. 

A  very  insignificant  amount  of  power  or  number  of  turns  is  required  to  do  this — 
much  less  than  most  of  them  are  making.  One  revolution  per  minute  for  large  chests 
and  short  pulp,  and  2  or  3  for  small  tubs  and  heavy  fibres  would  be  sufficient. 

Any  surplus  of  motion  above  that  required  to  float  the  mass  is  not  merely  a  waste 
of  power,  but  a  positive  evil.  A  rapid  circulation  causes  the  fibres  frequently  to  roll 
up  into  little  balls,  which  are  not  only  so  much  lost  pulp,  but  also  obstruct  the 
screens  and  mark  the  paper. 

The  agitator  assists  sometimes  in  creating  this  difficulty,  if  it  is  so  constructed 
that  it  beats  flat  against  the  stuff.  Every  part  of  it  should  be  formed  so  as  to  cut  the 
pulp  with  a  sharp  edge,  and  no  two  bars  should  follow  each  other  in  the  same  track. 
Few  and  far  between  is  the  best  rule  for  the  number  of  upright  pieces — no  more  than 
are  required  to  keep  up  the  movement.  The  sharp  edges  also  catch  the  strings,  which 
lay  themselves  around  them  and  can  be  removed  when  the  chest  is  empty,  while  they 
would  slide  off  from  round-edged  pieces. 

The  chest  must  be  perfectly  smooth  inside,  and  not  offer  any  corners  or  projec- 
tions where  the  fibres  can  lodge. 


112 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


A  slimy  mass  sticks  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  even  if  they  are  perfectly  smooth, 
and  should  be  washed  off.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  fastening  on  top  of  the 
upright  centre-shaft  a  cup  or  pot,  from  which  issues  a  |  inch  pipe,  supported  by  the 
agitator,  and  extending  to  within  about  1  inch  of  the  sides.  If  the  cup  or  receiver  is 
supplied  with  a  small  stream  of  water,  it  will  be  thrown  through  the  pipe  against  the 
sides  with  sufficient  centrifugal  power  to  keep  them  all  the  time  clean. 

The  chests  should  be  frequently  emptied  and  cleaned  out.  The  bottom  must  for 
this  purpose  be  provided  with  a  small  valve,  through  which  the  wash-water  escapes. 

93.  Mixture  of  the  Pulp  in  the  Stuif-Chest. — The  paper-machine  receives  a  certain 
volume  of  pulp  with  every  stroke  of  the  stuff-pump,  and  this  mass  is  expected  to 
make  a  certain  quantity  of  paper  of  a  certain  weight.  But  it  can  only  do  so  if  it  con- 
tains all  the  time  the  same  quantity  of  fibres,  or  if  the  stuff  in  the  chest  is  in  the  same 
state  of  dilution. 

After  the  large  body  of  pulp  has  left  the  beater,  the  remaining  portions  are 
washed  out  with  fresh  water,  and  it  is  usually  left  to  the  engineer  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  the  latter.  The  most  careful  man  cannot  always  draw  exactly  the  same 
quantity  of  water,  if  guided  by  his  judgment  alone;  and  Mr.  Planche  proposes  there- 
fore to  establish  a  water-receiver  above  the  beaters,  from  which  a  measured  number 
of  inches  is  to  be  used  for  every  engine,  of  pulp. 

The  half-stuff,  furnished  to  every  beater,  cannot  be  expected  to  contain  always 
the  same  quantity  of  fibres  or  paper,  and  here  is  another  source  of  irregularity.  By 
uniting  the  pulp  of  several  beaters,  the  surj^lus  of  one  will  make  up  for  the  deficiency 
of  the  other ;  and  the  more  of  them  we  can  mix  together,  the  more  uniform  will  be 
the  stuff.    The  larger  therefore  the  chests,  the  better. 

If  only  one  chest  is  on  hand,  the  beaters  empty  into  it,  while  the  machine  is 
supplied  from  it.  We  may  suppose  that  the  contents  of  a  beater,  together  with  the 
water  used  to  wash  it  down,  will  give  a  stuff'  of  about  the  same  dilution  as  that  with 
which  they  are  going  to  mingle.  But  it  takes,  if  done  never  so  quickly,  some  time 
to  empty  ;  and  while  the  first  thick  part  of  the  pulp  goes  down,  the  stuff  pumped  to 
the  machine  will  be  more  concentrated  and  make  too  heavy  a  paper,  until  the  required 
dilution  has  been  re-established  by  the  mixture  of  the  following  thinner  portions  and 
the  wash-water.  This  can  only  be  avoided  by  the  jjossession  of  at  least  two  stuff- 
chests.  While  the  engines  are  emptying  into  one,  the  machine  works  from  the 
other,  and  nothing  can  change  the  composition  of  the  stuff. 

Few  mills  make  one  kind  of  paper  all  the  time ;  many  have  to  change  quality 
or  color  very  often.  If  only  one  chest  is  on  hand,  the  beaters  must  wait  until  it  is 
worked,  and  sometimes  even  washed  out,  before  the  succeeding  kind  of  paper-pulp 
can  be  emptied.  The  time  lost  in  this  way  may  be  saved  by  the  comparatively  small 
outlay  for  a  second  chest. 

In  mills  where  many  different  qualities  or  colors  are  made,  even  three  or  more 
stuff-chests  will  be  found  useful. 

94.  The  StufF-Pump. — The  stuff-chests  are  sometimes  standing  on  a  high  founda- 


MIXING,  WASHING  AND  BEATING,  SIZING,  COLORING,  ETC. 


113 


Fig.  50. 


tion,  3  to  5  feet  above  the  floor,  and  empty  through  gates  into  a  small  receiver, 
whence  the  pulp  is  either  taken  out  by  a  scoop-wheel  or  some  of  those  numberless 
contrivances  called  regulators,  and  delivered  on  to  the  machine. 

The  object  of  all  these  arrangements  is  to  furnish  exactly  the  same  volume  of 
pulp  during  a  certain  time,  and  none  of  them  does  it  more  perfectly  than  the 
plunger  stufF-pump  which  is  generally  used  in  the  United  States. 

This  pump,  represented  by  the  following  cut.  Fig.  50,  consists  of  an  upright  iron 
body  A,  lined  with  brass,  with  an  iron,  brass-lined 
plunger  g,  moved  up  and  down  in  it  by  means  of  a 
pitman  and  crank,  and  making  a  stroke  variable  from 
8  to  12  inches.  Whenever  the  plunger  goes  up,  the 
vacuum  created  below  is  filled  up  by  the  pulp,  which 
enters  through  the  brass  ball-valve  b.  In  descending, 
the  pressure,  exercised  by  the  plunger,  closes  the  valve 
B,  and  forces  tlie  pulp  through  the  channel  c  and  valve 
D  into  the  pipe  or  spout  leading  to  the  regulating  box. 
Balls  are  the  only  valves  which  will  close,  no  matter 
in  what  position  they  fall  back  on  their  seats.  Some- 
times, however,  they  are  prevented  from  doing  so  by 
rags  or  sticks,  which  lodge  on  their  seats,  and  the 
pump  will  not  work  until  the  obstructions  are  re- 
moved. Easy  access  is  therefore  provided  to  the 
lower  valve,  through  a  hand-hole  e,  and  the  removal 
of  the  funnel  pipe  f  exposes  the  upper  one  d. 

The  connection  between  this  pump  and  the  stuff- 
chest  should  be  as  short  as  possible,  as  it  is  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  agitator,  and  therefore  convenient 
for  the  separation  and  deposit  from  the  pulp,  of  rags,  strings,  and  foreign  matters  which 
may  obstruct  it.  It  consists  often  of  a  wooden  box,  about  six  inches  square  inside,  one 
end  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  bottom,  underneath  the  chest,  Avhile  the  other  is  con- 
nected with  the  pump  by  as  short  a  pipe  as  possible.  There  must  be  as  many  pipes  or 
connections  as  chests ;  and  whatever  material  they  may  be  made  of,  every  part  of  the 
boxes  and  pipes  must  be  easily  accessible,  so  that  they  can  be  cleaned  out  at  any  time. 

The  supply  of  pulp  should  stop,  and  start,  and  change  its  speed  with  the  machine. 
The  stuff-pump  must  therefore  be  driven  by  the  same  motor  as  the  paper-machine,  so 
that  both  can  work  together  independently  of  the  rest  of  the  mill. 

This  simple  pump  is  more  convenient  than  any  of  the  regulators,  because  the 
chests  may  be  located  high  or  low,  near  or  at  a  great  distance  ;  it  will  forward  the  pulj) 
to  the  machine  without  difficulty.  Provided  that  its  motion  is  steady,  it  cannot  fail 
to  furnish  the  same  volume  of  pulp  at  all  times. 

If  a  patent  engine  is  used,  it  is  supplied  by  a  stuff-pump  from  a  chest ;  it  dis- 
charges into  another  chest,  and  a  second  stuflf-purap  transfers  it  thence  to  the  machine. 


15 


114 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


SECTION  V. 
Pa  PER- Machines. 

(^1)  THE  FOURDRINIER  PAPER-MACHINE. 

95.  Historical  Sketch  and  Introductory  Remarks. — This  chapter  has  reference  to 
the  continuous  automatic  operation  by  which  the  pulp  is  transformed  into  dry  sheets 
of  paper. 

The  paper-machine  has  not,  like  the  steam  engine  or  locomotive,  gone  forth  in  a 
comparatively  finished  state  from  the  brain  of  one  favored  man.  It  has  required  the 
life-long  labor  of  many  talented  mechanics  and  manufacturers  to  change  the  ancient 
paper-maker's  vat  and  form  into  the  complicated  mechanism,  which  now,  on  exactly 
the  same  princi})les,  produces  millions,  where  only  thousands  of  pounds  could  be 
turned  out  formerly. 

The  first  patent  was  taken  out  for  a  machine,  making  endless  paper,  by  Louis 
Robert,  in  France,  1799,  and  he  was  awarded  a  prize  of  8000  francs  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  troubles  in  which  France  was  involved  at  that  time  caused  him  to  go  with 
his  model  to  London,  England,  where  the  Messrs.  Fourdrinier  took  hold  of  it.  After 
spending  a  fortune  and  many  years  of  work  they  succeeded  in  building  a  paper- 
machine  which  worked  tolerably  well.  In  1807  they  stated  before  Parliament  that 
they  had  expended  £60,000  to  overcome  the  difliculties  which  they  had  encountered, 
and  that  they  did  not  receive  much  encouragement  from  paper  manufacturers. 

They  were  never  rewarded  for  their  labors  in  a  pecuniary  way,  and  they  cer- 
tainly well  deserve  to  be  immortalized  in  the  name  of  the  present  Fourdrinier 
machine. 

We  do  not  presume  to  exhaust  this  subject  in  all  its  bearings,  but  will  try  to 
point  out  the  principles  which  should  govern  the  construction  as  well  as  the  manage- 
ment of  a  paper-machine,  and  give  descriptions  which  may  be  of  practical  value  to  at 
least  a  portion  of  the  readers. 

The  operations  performed  under  this  head  may  be  classed  as  follows : 

I.  Regulating  and  diluting  the  pulp  to  its  proper  state  by  means  of  the  regula- 
ting box,  fan-pump,  &c. 

II.  Freeing  the  stuff  from  impurities  or  substances  other  than  single  fibres. — 
This  is  done  by  sand-grates  and  screens  or  pulp-dressers. 

III.  Forming  the  paper. — This  is  the  most  important  part,  and  treats  of  the 
wire-cloth  and  its  attachments. 

IV.  Forcing  water  out  by  pressure. — The  presses. 

V.  Heating  the  paper  until  all  the  water  has  been  evaporated. — Dryers. 
VI.  Polishing  the  surface. — Calenders. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


115 


VII.  Winding  up. — Reels. 
VIII.  Trimming  and  cutting. — Cutters. 

I.  Regulating  and  Diluting  the  Pulp. 

96.  Regulating  Box. — The  regulating  box  is  usually  of  wood  about  1|  by  2  feet, 
and  1  ^  to  2  feet  high.  It  is  divided  by  two  upright  partitions  into  three  compart- 
ments, the  middle  of  which  receives  the  pulp,  and  empties  it  through  copper  gates 
into  the  two  side  compartments.  One  of  the  latter  empties  through  a  3  to  5  inch 
copper  pipe  into  the  mixing  box  or  into  the  fan-pump,  while  the  other  is  connected 
by  a  spout  with  the  stuff-chest. 

The  pumjD  always  throws  more  pulp  than  is  used,  in  order  to  make  sure  of  a 
sufficient  supply,  and  it  is  the  machine-tender's  business,  to  regulate  it  with  the  two 
gates  by  permitting  the  surplus  to  return  into  the  chest. 

Every  corner  of  the  box  in  which  stuff  might  lodge,  is  to  be  filled  up  by  a  board 
put  diagonally  across  it. 

The  permanent  flow  of  stuff  from  the  box  back  into  the  chest  makes  it  necessary, 
that  it  should  be  located  above  the  top  of  the  latter,  and  at  the  same  time  be  easily 
accessible  to  the  machine-tender. 

The  machine  requires  a  much  more  diluted  stuff  than  is  furnished  by  the  chest. 
The  pulp  is  therefore  mostly  led  from  the  regulating  box  into  a  mixing  box,  where 
it  is  thinned  out  by  the  addition  of  fresh  water. 

A  box  or  save-all  gathers  the  water  which  leaves  the  pulp  while  on  the  wire- 
cloth,  and  empties  it  into  a  fan-pump  on  the  driving  side  of  the  machine. 

97.  Fan-Pump  and  Mixing  Box. — The  fan-pump,  of  which  Fig.  51  and  Fig.  52 
are  sections  through  b  b  and  a  a,  throws  the  received  liquid  up  into  the  mixing 


Fig.  51.  Fig.  52. 


box,  thus  saving  not  only  fresh  water,  but  also  coloring,  sizing  matters,  and  fibres 
which  may  have  escaped  from  the  pulp  with  water. 

The  arms  or  wings  d  on  a  horizontal  shaft  revolve  fast  within  a  circular  casing 


116  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


E,  of  the  same  shape  as  the  fan,  so  that  the  whole  space  will  be  constantly  scoured. 
The  stuff  enters  through-  the  centre  on  the  side  not  pierced  by  the  shaft,  is  pushed 
forward  by  the  wings  into  an  outlet  at  the  periphery,  and  can  be  forced  through  a 
pipe  to  any  desired  height. 

A  large  cast-iron  or  metal  casing  f,  extending  over  the  fan-pump  and  opening 
into  it,  receives  the  water  from  the  save-all. 

Instead  of  using  a  separate  mixing  box,  the  pan  f,  above  the  fan-pump,  is  fre- 
quently made  large  enough  to  serve  in  its  place.  In  that  case  the  stuff  flows  from  the 
regulating  box  directly  into  the  fan-pump  receiver  f,  where  it  is  diluted  with  the 
water  from  the  save-all  and  a  fresh  supply  from  a  water-pipe.  By  this  arrangement 
a  separate  mixing  box  is  not  only  saved,  but  the  stuff  and  water  in  passing  through 
the  fan-pump  together  are  more  thoroughly  mixed. 

The  violent  beating  of  the  fan-pump  sometimes  increases  the  froth  on  heavily- 
sized  pulp,  and  a  separate  mixing  box  may  for  this  reason  be  preferred  for  sized 
papers. 

The  speed  of  the  fan-pump  must  be  regulated,  so  that  it  will  forward  all  the 
liquid  which  is  poured  into  it. 

II.  Sand-Tahles,  Pulp-Dressers,  and  Apron. 

98.  Sand-Tables. — Rags,  even  if  they  are  carefully  sorted,  carry  with  them  sand, 
coal,  iron,  and  other  heavy  impurities,  the  weight  of  which  will  cause  them  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  diluted  pulp,  if  it  is  spread  over  a  sufficiently  large  surface. 

Whenever  the  paper  is  found  to  be  sandy,  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  sand-grates 
in  the  engines  or  the  sand-tables,  or  both,  are  either  insufficient  or  not  well  attended  to. 

Any  location  and  form  will  answer  for  sand-tables,  provided  they  be  large 
enough,  and  thereby  permit  the  pulp  to  flow  slowly  over  them. 

If  they  consisted  of  only  one  compartment,  the  deposits  would  be  carried  along 
to  the  end  of  the  box,  where  they  would  accumulate,  and  ultimately  escape  with  the 
pulp.  They  must  therefore  be  divided  into  numerous  small  divisions  by  means  of 
low  gates  or  weirs.  These  gates  are  placed  square  across  the  tables  in  such  a  way 
that  the  deposits  cannot  be  carried  over  them.  Provision  must  also  be  made  for  a 
quick  discharge  of  these  deposits  when  the  tables  are  to  be  cleaned  out. 

The  cheapest  and  most  common  sand-tables  consist  of  flat  wooden  boxes  with 
partition  boards,  which  slide  in  or  out  between  strips  fastened  to  the  sides. 

A  very  good  table  is  made  of  sheet  zinc  bent  up  and  down,  so  as  to  form  a  suc- 
cession of  bags,  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  58.  Such  zinc  tables  can  be  taken  out 
bodily,  to  be  emptied  and  washed. 

From  the  sand-tables  the  pulp  flows  into  strainers,  and  should  be  spread  on  them 
as  uniformly  as  possible. 

99.  Strainers. — The  stuff  always  contains  bundles  of  fibres  which  have  escaped  the 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


117 


knives  of  the  beaters  by  lodging  in  some  corner,  or  strings,  which  have  been  formed  of 
separated  fibres  by  the  agitator  in  the  stuff-chest  or  on  the  passage  to  the  pulp-dresser. 
Light  impurities,  such  as  rubber,  wood,  j)aper,  or  straw,  are  suspended  in  the  stuff, 
besides  the  heavy  ones  which  failed  to  be  deposited  in  the  sand-grates  and  tables. 

Every  particle  of  such  matters  makes  a  spot  in  the  paper,  and  it  is  therefore 
very  important  that  they  should  be  kept  out. 

The  pulp-dressers,  strainers,  or  knotters  guard  the  entrance  to  the  paper-machine, 
and  should  not  let  anything  pass  but  well-prepared  and  separated  fibre. 

100.  Bar-Screens. — One  of  the  oldest  screens  consists  of  a  brass  box,  the  extended 
arms  of  which  receive  an  up  and  down  movement  by  knockers  in  the  usual  way. 
The  bottom  of  the  box  is  formed  of  narrow  brass  bars,  shaped  like  the  common 
grate-bars  of  a  steam-boiler  furnace.  These  bars  are  pierced  by  two  light  brass 
rods,  bearing  rings  of  thin  sheet  copper  or  brass  between  the  bars.  The  thickness  of 
the  metal  of  these  rings  determines  the  openings  between  the  bars,  and  can  be  varied 
by  means  of  sets  of  different  sizes.  Both  ends  of  the  bars  fit  into  cavities  in  the  sides 
of  the  screen-box,  and  form  a  solid  bottom  with  as  many  openings  or  slits  as  there 
are  bars. 

The  openings  in  these  screens  cannot  be  made  narrow  or  fine  enough  for  the 
better  grades  of  paper,  and,  if  they  are  taken  apart,  it  is  very  difficult  to  put  them 
together  again  in  such  a  manner  that  the  distance  between  the  bars  will  be  every- 
where the  same.  The  slightest  increase  of  width  between  two  bars  allows  the 
knots  to  pass  and  makes  the  screen  useless.  These  strainers,  though  costly,  are  very 
substantial,  require  no  renewal  of  plates,  and  answer  very  well  for  lower  grades  of 
paper  or  a  preliminary  screening. 

101.  Plate-Screens. — The  screens  most  generally  used  consist  of  brass  or  compo- 
sition plates,  about  10  by  30  inches,  and  /g  to  |  inch  thick,  with  narrow  parallel 
openings  cut  into  them  by  a  machine  in  such  a  way  that  they  are  finest  on  the  upper 
side,  which  carries  the  pulp,  and  widen  out  gradually  below.  The  pulp,  which  has 
once  passed  the  fine  openings  on  top,  thus  flows  freely  through  the  constantly  en- 
larging channels. 

The  passage  of  pulp  through  the  slits  wears  off  the  metal  and  widens  the  open- 
ings. To  avoid  frequent  renewals,  the  hardest  possible  composition,  which  has  yet 
elasticity  enough  to  bear  the  constant  knocks  without  breaking,  should  be  used  for 
these  plates. 

A  pulp-dresser  of  this  kind  is  shown  by  a  section  and  plan  in  Figs.  53  and  54, 
and  by  a  perspective  view  in  Fig.  55. 

The  screen  a,  the  sides  of  which  extend  several  inches  below  the  plates,  is 
fastened  to  levers  or  arms  b,  and  suspended  in  a  vat  c.  The  pulp  in  the  vat  c  must 
be  kept  at  such  a  height  that,  while  the  lower  edges  of  the  screen  are  constantly 
immersed,  an  empty  space  remains  between  the  screen-plates  and  the  surface  of  the 
stuff. 

The  vat  c  is  full  of  pulp  before  the  wire  starts,  but  as  soon  as  the  outlet  gate  d 


118 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINEBT. 


is  opened,  the  level  falls  to  the  desired  point — perhaps  as  low  as  the  overflow  lip  e, 
but  at  all  events  somewhat  below  the  plates — creating  a  vacuum  between  itself  and 
the  pulp  in  the  screen.  This  vacuum  is  of  great  assistance  in  forcing  the  pulp 
through,  and  must  be  carefully  preserved. 

If  the  stuff  in  the  vat  is  allowed  to  accumulate  till  it  rises  above  the  screen- 
plates,  the  fibres  remain  suspended  above  them  and  will  pass  with  difficulty  through 
the  openings;  and  if  the  supply  of  pulp  in  the  vat  is  reduced  so  that  its  surface  sinks 


Fig.  53. 


Fio.  54. 


beneath  the  lower  edges  of  the  screen-frames,  the  air  enters  the  empty  space,  or 
vacuum,  below  the  plates,  and  the  suction,  with  which  the  latter  assists  the  passage 
of  the  pulp,  is  lost. 

The  gate  d  must  therefore  be  constructed  so  that  the  flow  of  pulp  can  be  easily 
regulated  by  it,  and  at  the  same  time  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  wire-cloth. 
The  one  indicated  by  d  consists  of  a  stationary  brass  plate,  with  a  number  of  round 


PAP  EE  -  MA  CHINES. 


119 


holes,  at  equal  distances,  extending  all  across  the  front  side,  and  of  another  identical  but 
movable  plate,  which  slides  to  and  fro  on  the  former,  as  directed  by  the  hand-wheel 
and  screw  outside  of  the  vat.  The  largest  possible  opening  is  obtained  when  the 
holes  in  both  plates  cover  each  other ;  and,  by  moving  the  sliding  plate,  it  can  be 
decreased  or  closed,  as  may  be  desired. 

Some  kinds  of  stuff  are  so  free,  that  the  water  escapes  quickly  through  the  slits, 
and  leaves  the  fibres  on  the  screen.  Whenever  this  is  the  case,  the  liquid  in  the 
vat  c  must  be,  contrary  to  our  general  rule,  kept  as  high  as  the  plates,  so  that  the 
fibres  are  held  afloat  until  they  pass  through  the  openings. 

The  vat  should  not  be  larger  than  is  necessary  to  give  room  to  the  screen ;  any 


Fig.  55. 


additional  space  is  an  evil,  as  it  furnishes  an  opportunity  to  some  of  the  fibres  to  sep- 
arate and  lodge  on  the  bottom,  unless  an  agitator  g,  consisting  of  two  wooden  paddles, 
and  driven  by  belt  and  pulley  outside,  is  used  to  keep  them  afloat. 

The  bearings  of  the  knocker-shaft  and  screen-arms  are  frequently  fastened  to 
the  vat,  and  communicate  to  it  the  knocks  and  vibrations  of  the  screen.  If  such  vats 
are  of  wood,  they  must  soon  become  leaky,  and  remain  a  source  of  trouble  in  spite  of 
lining  and  calking. 

Cast-iron  vats  are  not  open  to  this  objection ;  they  carry  the  shafts  with  safety, 
and,  though  more  expensive,  will  be  found  cheaper  in  the  end,  if  the  pulp  lost 
through  wooden  ones  is  taken  into  consideration.  The  vat  represented  in  our  draw- 
ings consists  of  one  solid  piece  of  casting. 


120 


MANUFAGTUllE  OF  PAP  EE 


FROM  BAGS 


BY  MACHINERY. 


The  knocker-wheels  are  exposed  to  much  wear  and  tear,  and  should  always  be 
chilled.    A  chilled-iron  knocker-wheel  outlasts  many  common  soft  iron  ones. 

The  cast-iron  frames,  which  carry  the  vat,  must  be  bolted  on  a  very  solid  founda- 
tion. If  they  stand  loosely,  the  power,  which  is  intended  to  shake  the  screens,  will 
vent  itself  on  the  whole  structure,  and  the  motion  of  the  screens  is  lessened  in  the 
same  proportion. 

Wooden  screen-frames  wear  out  and  render  frequent  repairs  necessary,  while 
iron  or  brass  ones  give  little  or  no  trouble.  The  frame  of  our  screen  a  is  one  piece 
of  cast  iron.  The  brass  screen-plates  are  fastened  to  it  with  bolts,  and  held  down 
on  the  ends  by  strips  of  wood,  bolted  to  the  sides. 

The  arms  b  carrying  the  screen  should  be  either  of  hammered  iron  or  wood,  as 
cast  iron  ones  would  have  to  be  made  very  heavy  to  stand  the  continuous  knocks  for  a 
long  time  without  breaking.  A  strong,  sound  piece  of  wood,  well  fitted  and  bolted 
to  the  screen-frames,  will  deaden  the  noise  of  the  knockers,  and  is  therefore  prefer- 
able to  metal.  The  arms  b  in  Figs.  53,  54,  and  55,  are  of  wood,  but  have,  as 
shown  in  the  detailed  section.  Fig.  56,  an  iron  spring  h,  §  inch  thick,  bolted  to 

them  and  covering  the  lower  side  and 
Fig.  56.  the  round  end  near  the  knockers. 

sJfllLb  (Fig.  53.)     This  spring  is  longer 

than  the  wooden  arm,  and  the  free 
projecting  end  is  fastened  to  the  iron 
vat,  at  the  farthest  end,  with  a 
single  bolt  f.  The  free  end  of  the 
spring  is  elastic  enough  to  allow  the 
screen  to  make  the  short  up  and 
down  movement  given  to  it  by  the 
knockers,  and  is  an  improvement  on 
the  shaft  and  bearings  usually  found 
in  its  place. 

The  parts  of  the  screen  nearest 
to  the  knockers  are  lifted  higher  than  the  more  distant  ones ;  and  the  difference  is 
the  greater  the  shorter  the  arms  b,  or  the  nearer  the  turning-points  F  are  to  the 
screen.  The  motion  of  the  screen  in  all  its  parts  should  be  as  uniform  as  possible, 
and  this  will  be  accomplished  by  long  arms,  the  turning-points  of  which  are  as  far 
from  the  screen-plates  as  possible. 

It  is  important  to  avoid  vibration  in  any  part  of  this  apparatus,  because  the 
motion  of  the  screens,  as  said  before,  will  be  reduced  by  exactly  the  amount  absorbed 
by  other  parts.  The  shafts  should  therefore  be  strong  and  heavy,  supported  by  long 
bearings  on  both  sides  of  the  knockers,  of  wrought  iron  and  not  less  than  2^  to  3 
inches  diameter. 

The  extent  of  the  up  and  down  movement  can  be  regulated  by  the  depth  to 
which  the  screen-arms  b  are  allowed  to  drop  after  having  been  raised  up  by  one  of 


PAPER  -  MA  CHIJSrES.  121 

the  knocker-cams.  It  is  commonly  done  by  numerous  strips  of  leather,  which  are 
fastened  on  the  rim  of  the  vat,  beneath  the  levers.  Strips  of  different  thicknesses 
must  be  kept  on  hand  to  form  cushions  of  any  desired  height ;  they  must  be  fre- 
quently renewed,  and  generally  require  a  great  deal  of  attention. 

Fig.  56  re25resents  an  im23roved  cushion,  consisting  of  two  flat  keys  a  and  b, 
which  form  a  parallelogram  by  uniting  on  the  diagonal.  The  key  a  is  stationary,  but 
b  can  be  pushed  forward  by  means  of  the  screw  c  and  the  immovable  nut  d,  and  thus 
raises  a,  which  is  prevented  by  the  bolts  k  k  from  moving  sideways.  If  it  is  desired 
to  lower  the  cushion,  the  screw  c  is  simply  turned  backward  and  the  key  b  jDUshed 
after  it.  A  piece  of  leather  e  is  dovetailed  into  the  upper  key  a,  and  receives  the 
falling  arm  b  to  prevent  noise. 

A  bolt /,' passing  through  the  arm  b  and  spring  h,  has  a  steel  plate  </  fastened  to 
its  end,  which  drops  on  the  leather  e,  and  can  easily  be  renewed  when  worn  out. 

Iron  screens  are  too  heavy  to  be  lifted  up  by  hand,  but  they  can  easily  be  raised 
and  held  in  any  position  with  differential  or  ordinary  pulley-blocks,  or  with  any 
other  simple  lifting  arrangement. 

The  principal  faults  of  this  system  of  strainers  are,  that  the  knots  remain  on 
them,  settle  in  the  slits,  and  prevent  the  passage  of  the  pulp.  The  knots  must  there- 
fore be  frequently  removed  by  the  machine-tender,  who  scrapes  them  together  into  a 
corner,  and  takes  them  out  from  there.  However  carefully  this  may  be  done,  some 
of  the  smaller  knots  will  be  forced  through  by  the  scraping  motion  ;  and  by  the 
removal  of  all  obstructions  a  larger  amount  of  fibres  is  enabled  to  pass  through  the 
screens,  after  they  have  been  cleaned,  than  before.  We  tlierefore  find  the  paper  to 
contain  more  impurities  and  to  be  heavier,  immediately  after  the  screens  have 
been  cleaned  than  at  other  times.  Some  of  the  knots  which  have  been  pushed 
through  on  that  occasion  may  not  enter  into  the  paper  until  a  considerable  time 
afterward,  and  will  then  show  themselves  as  spots,  or  even  cause  breaks. 

102.  Ibotson's  Strainer. — W.  Ibotson  has  invented  a  combination  of  strainers,  by 
which  these  difficulties  are  overcome. 

The  following  Fig.  57  represents  one  of  these  strainers,  with  two  screens  and 
one  auxiliary  one. 

The  pulp  enters  the  screens  through  the  two  inlets  c,  and  flows  over  the  plates 
in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrows,  thus  passing  over  every  part  of  them.  Both 
screens  are  put  in  motion  by  knockers  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  pulp  which  jDasses 
through  the  slits,  proceeds  over  the  lip  a  directly  to  the  wire  of  the  paper-machine. 
All  of  that  portion  of  the  pulp  which  could  not  pass  through  the  slits  descends  at  the 
end  of  the  course,  through  an  outlet-trough  d,  into  the  auxiliary  strainer  b.  The 
stuff,  which  makes  its  way  through  the  plates  of  this  strainer  b  is  pumped  back 
again  into  the  upper  screens,  and  the  knots  and  impurities  remaining  on  it,  are  taken 
out  by  hand  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

16 


/ 


1 


122 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

Fig.  57. 


•  The  following  Figs.  58  and  59  show  in  front-elevation  and  plan  the  connections 
of  an  Ibotson  strainer,  with  the  feed  and  discharge  spouts : 

Fig.  58. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


123 


The  stuff  is  admitted  from  the  sand-catcher  a  along  the  front  of  the  screen 
b ;  the  bulk  passes  through  the  plates  of  this  screen  b  to  the  wire  c,  while  a  small 
portion,  containing  all  the  dirt  and  knots,  flows  over  the  plates  and  through  the 
holes  d  d  d,  Fig.  59,  into  a  trough  underneath.  At  each  end  of  this  trough  are 
pipes  which  pass  through  water-tight  glands  in  the  side  of  the  vat,  forming  at  once 
the  supports  for  the  strainer  and  means  of  exit  for  the  stuff.  Having  passed  through 
these  pipes  the  stuff  descends  by  vertical  pipes  e  e  into  the  shoots  g  g.  These  shoots 
also  receive  the  backwater  from  under  the  wire,  and  thus  diluted  the  stuff  passes  into 
the  auxiliary  screen  i.  There  the  dirt  and  knots  are  retained,  while  the  good  fibre 
passes  through  with  the  backwater,  is  conveyed  to  the  lifter  by  the  shoot  k,  and  re- 
turned* to  the  strainer  b. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the  auxiliary  strainer  i,  the  valve  /  is  pro- 
vided, through  which,  if  opened,  the  stuff  is  allowed  for  the  time,  to  pass  directly  from 
shoots  g  g  to  shoot  k  and  the  lifter  or  stuff-pump ;  the  strainer  i  is  thus  laid  dry,  and 
can  be  thoroughly  cleaned  without  in  any  way  affecting  the  quality  or  quantity  of 
stuff  passing  to  the  wire.  The  sand-catcher  a  is  made  to  rest  on  a  pivot  m,  and  can 
be  turned  up  into  a  nearly  vertical  position.  This  greatly  facilitates  cleaning  it,  and 
permits  the  two  strainers  to  be  turned  up  also. 

When  space  is  wanted,  the  auxiliary  strainer  can  be  ^^laced  under  the  patent 
strainer,  and  two  patent  strainers  can  be  placed  in  one  vat  if  required. 

A  large  number  of  these  strainers  are  in  operation  in  England  and  France,  and 
seem  to  give  satisfaction.  They  can  hardly  fail  to  make  the  paper  more  uniform,  as 
the  principal  strainers  are  never  touched  by  the  machine-tender,  and  the  pulp  passing 
through  the  auxiliary  one  is  not  allowed  to  go  directly  to  the  machine.  As  no  knots 
remain  on  the  plates,  to  block  up  the  slits,  their  efiiciency  is  increased,  and  the 
ojjenings  can  be  made  narrower. 

103.  Suction  Strainers. — In  some  mills  pulp-dressers  are  used,  which  act  entirely 
by  suction  without  vibration. 

The  screens  are  stationary,  and  form  a  perfect  diaphragm  across  the  vat,  so  that 
nothing  can  pass  in  anywhere,  except  through  the  openings  in  the  plates.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  vat  consists  of  a  rubber-lined  plate,  which  is  moved  up  and  down  by 
means  of  levers.  Its  action  is  exactly  like  that  of  a  pum]3,  and  it  forces  the  pulp 
through  the  openings  by  suction  only. 

The  continued  motion  soon  wears  out  the  rubber-joints,  and  causes  frequent  and 
costly  renewals. 

Screens  of  this  kind,  working  by  suction  only,  cannot  be  efficient  for  any  but 
the  finest  and  best  prepared  pulp,  or  such  as  has  previously  passed  another  screen,  as 
the  knots  are  not  prevented  from  settling  in  the  slits,  and  may  obstruct  the  passage 
of  the  pulp. 

104.  Revolving  Screens. — Many  revolving  screens  have  been  constructed  and 
again  abandoned,  but  those  represented  by  a  plan  in  Fig.  60,  built  by  George  Bertram, 
in  Edinburgh,  seem  to  have  found  favor  with  paper-makers  in  England  and  Scotland. 


124  MANUFACTUEE  OF  FAPER  FliOM  RAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


The  two  strainers  a  a  revolve  in  vats  filled  with  pulp,  impelled  by  the  gearing 
shown  in  the  plan,  and  their  four  sides  are  covered  with  ordinary  screen-plates. 

Their  interior  is  provided  with  a  rubber  suction  arrangement  or  bellows,  moved 
from  the  centre,  like  the  piston  of  a  pump ;  the  pulp  is  thus  drawn  in  from  the  out- 

FiG.  60. 


c 


side  through  the  slits  of  the  plates,  and  discharged  into  the  troughs,  which  conduct 
it  to  the  wire  of  the  machine. 

The  knots,  which  were  unable  to  pass  through  the  openings,  remain  in  the  vats, 
and  would  soon  fill  them  up,  so  that  the  strainers  would  have  to  be  stopped  for  the 
jrarpose  of  cleaning  them,  if  they  could  not  be  drawn  off  into  the  auxiliary  screen  b, 
which  is  of  ordinary  construction. 

105.  Reversed  Screens,  in  which  the  stuff  passes  through  the  plates  from  below, 
are  sometimes  used  to  give  a  last  cleaning  to  pulp,  which  has  previously  passed  other 
pulp-dressers.  The  knots  and  other  heavy  parts  fall  to  the  bottom  instead  of  adhering 
to  the  plates  and  obstructing  them ;  but  if  there  should  be  too  many  impurities,  the 
vat  would  have  to  be  cleaned  out  so  often,  that  the  loss  of  time  and  pulp  would  become 
of  more  importance  than  the  usefulness  of  the  screens  in  improving  the  quality  of 
the  paper. 


PAFEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


125 


106.  Disposition,  Size,  and  Management  of  Strainers. — Mr.  Planclie  recommends 
the  use  of  three  different  strainers  in  the  following  order : 

1st.  A  strainer  of  the  ordinary  vibrating  kind. 

2d.  A  pulp-dresser  worked  by  means  of  a  suction  plate. 

3d.  A  strainer  in  which  the  pulj)  passes  through  the  plates  from  below. 

The  first  one  of  these  screens  has  the  widest  openings  and  retains  the  coarsest 
impurities,  while  each  succeeding  one  is  cut  finer,  and  keeps  out  knots  which  have 
passed  through  the  preceding  ones. 

It  is  a  subject  of  controversy  whether  the  stuff  will  be  better  cleaned  by  such  a 
succession  of  screens  than  in  passing  only  once  through  finely-cut  plates,  of  which 
there  are  enough  provided  to  permit  of  its  being  spread  over  a  large  surface. 

*  The  danger  that  the  knots,  which  may  pass  through  some  faulty  or  worn-out 
opening,  may  reach  the  wire-cloth  and  enter  into  the  paper,  is  certainly  greater  in  the 
latter  case,  but  the  former  system  is  more  complicated. 

The  plates  may  be  cut  finer  as  their  number  is  increased. 

Fine  paj^ers  are  usually  made  of  the  best  kind  of  stock,  well  prepared,  before 
it  is  admitted  to  the  machine,  and  passing  through  the  screen-plates  without 
difficulty. 

But  the  pulp-dressers  are  of  the  greatest  importance  for  medium  qualities  of 
paper,  and  the  large  and  fast-running  machines,  used  at  present,  should  never  be  pro- 
vided with  less  than  two  screens  of  15  to  20  square  feet  surface  each,  which  may  act 
as  one. 

The  addition  of  a  second  strainer  of  different  construction,  to  correct  the  faults 
of  the  first  set,  would  in  most  cases  be  repaid  by  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of 
the  paper. 

It  is  the  machine-tender's  duty  to  regulate  the  speed  and  vibrations  of  the  screens, 
as  well  as  to  remove  the  thick  stuff  and  impurities  on  the  plates  of  ordinary  pulp- 
dressers.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  passage  of  the  stuff  will  be  obstructed,  and  it  must 
run  over  the  top.  The  screenings  should  be  taken  out  at  regular  intervals,  and  with- 
out hammering  or  knocking  the  plates,  because  any  such  rough  action  would  defeat 
the  object  of  the  pulp-dresser,  and  force  through  the  openings  those  knots  and  im- 
purities, which  are  to  be  kept  out. 

The  frequent  examination  of  the  screenings  is  to  the  foreman  a  guide  for  the 
improvement  of  all  preceding  operations.  If  too  much  rubber,  sealing-wax,  and 
similar  substances  are  found,  it  is  an  evidence  that  the  rags  or  waste  papers  have  not 
been  sorted  as  carefully  as  they  should  have  been.  If  lumps  of  fibres,  rags  or  paper 
are  found,  the  engineer  is  to  blame  for  not  stirring  the  pulp  often  enough,  or  for  allow- 
ing it  to  leave  the  beater  without  having  been  thoroughly  brushed. 

The  screenings  may  be  gathered  and  used  for  some  of  the  lowest  grades  of  paper, 
such  as  coarse  wrapping,  match-box,  roofing,  &c. 

107.  Connection  of  the  Screen- Vat  with  the  Apron. — It  is  necessary  to  have  a  gate 
or  valve  between  the  pulp-dresser  and  the  wire,  by  which  the  flow  of  pulp  can  be 


126 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MAGHINEBY. 


suddenly  stopped  or  started  at  will.  In  the  vat  represented  by  Figs,  53,  54,  and  55, 
this  is  done  by  means  of  the  sliding  gate  d,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  desirable  to  have 
a  passage-way  between  the  screens  and  the  wire,  through  which  the  machine-tender 
may  go  to  the  driving  side  of  the  machine. 

In  that  case  the  pulp-dresser  vats  are  made  as  narrow  as  possible,  and  a  square 
chest  A,  represented  in  Fig.  61,  receives  ihe  pulp  which  has  passed  through  the 
screens.  It  is  usually  of  wood,  the  bottom  at  least  one  foot  above  ground  and  the 
top  level  with  the  top  of  the  pulp-dresser  vat. 

A  copper  or  cast-iron  pipe,  about  6  inches  wide,  connects  the  bottom  of  the  pulp- 
dresser  vats  with  that  of  the  chest  a.  (See  Plate  IV.)  This  pipe  is  placed  on  the 
floor,  bridged  by  a  bench  between  the  chest  a  and  the  screens,  and  supplied  with  a 
stop-cock,  through  which  the  vats  and  chest  a  can  be  emptied  and  cleaned,  '^he 
stuff  in  A  is  prevented  from  settling  by  an  agitator,  one  end  of  which  is  fastened  with 
the  screw  b.  The  upper  corner,  nearest  to  the  wire,  is  divided  off  from  the  rest  by  the 
partitions  c  c ;  and  a  valve  d — or  better,  a  sliding  gate,  such  as  described  before — on 
its  horizontal  part,  admits  the  pulp  to  the  wire.  An  opening  e,  as  wide  as  the  wire 
and  about  4  to  6  inches  high,  is  cut  out  in  the  front  side  of  the  chest  a,  the  lower 
edge  of  which  is  about  3  to  4  inches  above  the  apron. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  close  the  valve  d,  and  stop  the  flow  of  pulp  to  the 
wire  so  suddenly,  that  the  machine-tender  has  not  time  first  to  turn  off  the  pulp  by 
means  of  the  gates  in  the  regulating  box.  It  then  accumulates  in  the  chest  a,  finally 
runs  over,  and  is  lost.  To  prevent  this,  an  overflow  spout  connects  the  upper  part 
of  A  with  the  stuff-chest,  and  furnishes  an  outlet  for  the  surplus  pulp. 

The  stuff  in  leaving  the  screen-plates,  sometimes  hangs  on  to  their  lower  edges, 
and  forms  long  strings  of  fibres,  well  known  to  paper-makers,  which  either  break 
the  paper  or  make  a  dirty  spot.  To  catch  these  strings  we  recommend  the  insertion  of 
a  wooden  frame,  with  thin  upright  wooden  slats,  about  2  to  3  inches  apart,  similar  to 
the  rack  of  a  water-wheel,  into  the  oj)ening  e  from  inside  the  chest  a.  It  can  be 
fastened  by  a  few  washers,  and  removed  if  desired.  The  strings  will  hang  on  to  the 
upright  slats  with  remarkable  tenacity,  and  can  be  taken  from  them  at  any  time. 

A  sheet  of  copper  or  brass,  forming  an  outlet  or  lip,  is  fastened  to  the  lower  edge 
of  the  opening  e,  and  over  it  the  pulp  flows  on  to  the  apron. 

108.  Aprons. — To  support  the  apron,  brackets  are  fastened  to  the  posts  g  which 
carry  the  breast-roll.  A  solid  brass  plate,  not  flat  as  h  in  Fig.  61,  but  bordered  by  a 
flange  about  2  inches  high  all  around  except  on  the  side  against  the  wite,  is  usually 
bolted  to  these  brackets.  The  open  gap  between  this  plate  and  the  wire  is  bridged 
over  by  a  piece  of  leather  or  oil-cloth,  one  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  the  edge  of  the 
plate  by  means  of  screws,  while  the  other  end  rests  on  the  moving  wire.  It  must 
reach  far  enough  to  lay  flat  on  the  wire,  and  it  is  turned  up  on  the  sides  to  prevent 
the  pulp  from  escaping  in  that  direction. 

If  oil-cloth  is  used,  a  strong  piece  of  canvas  must  be  placed  under  it,  as  other- 
wise the  friction  of  the  wire  on  the  end  which  rests  there  would  soon  tear  it.  This 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES.  1 27 


constant  friction  wears  out  even  the  best  aprons,  and  makes  frequent  renewals 
necessary. 

Whenever  the  width  of  the  sheet  is  to  be  changed,  the  turned-up  sides  must  be 
undone,  shifted,  and  readjusted  at  the  proper  places. 

To  avoid  this  trouble  and  loss  of  time,  Mr.  Thomas  Lindsay  has  constructed  the 
patent  apron  represented  in  Fig.  61. 

Instead  of  leather  or  cloth,  it  consists  of  a  brass  centre-plate  i  and  two  side- 
plates  K  K,  which  can  be  made  to  slide  over  i  until  they  meet  in  the  middle.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  the  worms  and  worm-wheels  m  and  the  two  screws  l,  which  are 
cut  right  and  left  handed.    They  are  not  open  as  represented  in  the  drawing,  but 


Fia.  61. 


Fio.  02. 

covered  by  hollow  brass  tubes,  which  protect  them  from  the  pulp.  The  rods  n, 
carrying  the  worms,  are  a  continuation  of  those  y  in  Fig.  1  and  Fig.  2  of  Plate  I, 
which  move  the  deckels  ;  the  apron  and  deckels  are  thus  moved  in  and  out  together 
by  turning  the  cranks  y'  (Plate  I),  and  this  can  be  done  while  the  machine  is  run- 
ning or  at  rest.  To  prevent  the  escape  of  stuff  through  the  joints  between  the  plates 
K  K  and  I,  strips  of  brass  are  screwed  on  k  k,  and  project  over  i.    Strips  of 

leather,  fully  as  thick  as  k,  are  fastened  to  the  lower  side  of  the  projecting  part  of  k*, 
and  make  a  tight  joint. 

Fig.  62  represents  a  section,  in  the  direction  in  which  the  pulp  flows,  through 


128 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEE  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


that  part  of  the  apron,  where  one  of  the  plates  k  covers  plate  i.  The  slide  form- 
ing part  of  the  end-plate  k  is  dovetailed  into  the  stationary  frame  i^,  and  narrow 
brass  sheets  are  riveted  to  the  plates  k  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  both  plates  k 
and  I  immutably  joined  together  at  the  forward  edge  while  they  slide  sideways. 
The  brass  sheet  i\  riveted  to  the  plate  i,  has  a  j)iece  of  leather  riveted  to  it  all  along 
its  front  edge,  and  like  pieces  of  leather  are  riveted  to  plate  k.  The  unavoidable 
short  gap,  between  the  apron  and  the  wire,  is  closed  by  these  short  pieces  of  leather 
and  K^,  which  reach  nearly  to  the  gates  or  sluices. 

III.  The  Wire-Cloth  and  its  Attachments. 

109.  Qualities  and  Position  of  the  Wire-Cloth. — The  wire  is  the  part  of  the  machine 
on  which  the  jjaper  is  made;  it  represents  the  "Form"  of  the  paper-makers  of  old. 
It  is  woven  on  a  loom  similar  to  those  used  for  cotton  and  linen  goods,  on  which 
brass  wire  is  substituted  for  yarn.  When  the  required  length  of  cloth  is  finished,  it 
is  taken  from  the  loom  and  the  ends  are  sewed  together  by  hand,  so  that  it  will  form 
an  endless  wire-cloth. 

The  qualities  which  constitute  a  good  wire-cloth  are : 

That  it  is  uniformly  woven,  or  that  the  threads  are  parallel  with,  and  at  equal 
distances  from,  each  other ; 

That  the  wire  thread  be  tough,  pliable,  equally  thick  in  every  part,  and  capable 
of  suffering  a  strong  tension  without  tearing  apart  or  breaking.  The  comparative 
strength  of  the  wire  threads  can  easily  be  tested  by  trying  how  much  weight  can  be 
held  suspended  by  pieces  of  the  same  length  without  breaking  ; 

That  the  seam  should  be  made  with  great  care,  so  that  it  will  neither  make  too 
distinct  a  naark  on  the  paper,  nor  break  any  sooner  than  the  cloth  itself. 

Annealed  wires  are  softer  and  more  pliable  than  ordinary  ones,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  they  will  last  longer  under  the  same  circumstances. 

The  number  of  a  wire-cloth  represents  the  number  of  threads  contained  in  one 
inch  of  its  length ;  No.  60,  the  number  most  used,  contains  60  threads  in  1  inch. 
The  finer  qualities  of  paper,  such  as  book  or  letter,  are  mostly  made  on  No.  70,  with 
70  threads  in  1  inch.  As  a  rule,  the  higher  numbers  are  used  for  fine,  and  the  lower 
ones  for  coarse  j^aper. 

A  good  supply  of  wires  should  be  always  kept  on  hand  at  the  mills,  as  suitable 
ones  cannot  always  be  found  in  stock  at  the  stores. 

The  wire-cloth  is  spread  out  flat  horizontally,  for  the  reception  of  the  pulp  and 
the  formation  of  the  paper,  and  at  the  same  time  moves  rapidly  forward. 

Fig.  1,  Plate  I,  is  a  partial  plan,  and  Fig.  2  the  front  elevation  of  the  wire  jDart 
of  an  86  inch  machine,  which  has  been  built  by  Messrs.  Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.,  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  for  Messrs.  Jessup  &  Moore's  Rockland  Mill. 

The  following  plates,  II,  III,  and  IV,  and  the  previous  and  following  figures, 
61,  71,  72,  79,  and  80,  represent  parts  of  the  same  machine. 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


129 


It  is  supported  in  this  position  by  the  breast-roll  A,  a  number  of  small  rolls  b  b  b, 
consisting  of  brass  or  copper  tubes  with  steel  journals,  and  by  the  couch-roll  c.  The 
shaft  of  this  couch-roll  carries  a  pulley  c",  by  which  it  is  put  in  motion ;  and  with  it 
moves  the  wire-cloth,  which  on  its  part  turns  by  friction  all  the  carrying-rolls  over 
which  it  passes.  On  the  return  trip  from  c  to  A,  the  empty  wire  is  supported  by  the 
rolls  D  D  d',  the  latter  one  of  which  also  regulates  its  tension.  If  one  or  more  of  the 
carrying-rolls  are  not  exactly  parallel  and  level  with  the  rest,  or  if  the  wire-cloth  is 
a  trifle  longer  on  one  side,  it  receives  a  tendency  to  shift  sideways ;  and  to  correct 
this,  one  of  the  tube-rolls,  usually  b',  somewhat  larger  than  the  others,  can  be  moved 
back  and  forward  by  a  screw  and  hand-wheel  b"  on  the  front  side  of  the  machine, 
until  the  wire  keeps  the  middle  between  the  frames. 

These  frames,  fastened  to  sills  on  each  side,  are  identical,  and  carry  all  the  wire- 
rolls.  Their  upper  part  consists  of  a  strong  steel,  iron,  or  brass  bar  e,  to  which  the 
bearings  of  all  the  rolls  b  are  secured.  A  large  number  of  these  rolls,  which  lay 
very  close  together,  have  common  supports  e',  fastened  to  the  bars  e  with  brackets 
e",  but  the  others  rest  in  separate  brass  hangers.  One  end  of  each  bar  e  is  fastened 
to  the  cast-iron  frame  h  by  means  of  a  screw-bolt  h',  which  holds  it  without  pre- 
venting it  from  turning  slightly.  The  cast-iron  post  f  which  supports  the  other 
end,  can  be  moved  sideways,  swinging  on  a  bolt  or  hinge  at  the  bottom,  which  holds 
it  in  position  while  the  top  is  subjected  to  a  shaking  motion.  Three  brass  columns 
G,  G,  and  g',  support  the  bar  e  ;  they  rest  on  pivots,  which  permit  them  to  follow  the 
lateral  motion  of  the  frame,  and  their  upper  ends  are  turned  down  to  narrow  journals, 
which  fit  cavities  in  the  bar  e.  To  remove  these  columns  g  and  g'  the  bar  e  is  simply 
sprung  up  enough  to  clear  the  projecting  narrow  journals.  The  bearings  a'  of  the 
breast-roll  a  are  attached  to  the  cast-iron  posts  f,  and  the  columns  g  and  g'  are  sup- 
plied with  sleeves  and  boxes  g",  fastened  with  set-screws,  by  means  of  which  the 
stretch-rolls  d  and  d'  can  be  set  higher  or  lower.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  move 
some  of  these  rolls  so  little,  that  some  means  must  be  j)rovided  to  adjust  them  very 
accurately.  The  bearings  of  the  breast-roll  and  the  principal  stretch-roll  d  are 
therefore  supplied  with  screws  a"  and  d"  on  both  sides  of  the  machine,  by  means  of 
which  the  most  minute  changes  can  be  made  in  their  positions. 

It  is  very  important  that  all  the  rolls,  especially  the  large  ones,  should  be  strong 
enough  to  endure  without  springing  the  heavy  pressure  to  which  they  are  sometimes 
subjected  by  a  tightly-stretched  wire. 

It  is  the  tendency  of  our  time  to  increase  constantly  the  width  and  speed  of  the 
machines,  and  yet  we  find  these  large  and  fast  machines  sometimes  furnished  with 
rolls  and  shafts  of  the  same  diameter  as  those  for  slow  and  narrow  ones.  If  the  rolls 
are  not  strong  and  stifi"  enough  they  will  bend ;  the  wire  will  be  stretched  more  in  one 
place  than  another,  causing  it  to  run  unevenly  and  wear  out  fast.  Cojiper  or  brass 
stretch-rolls  d  d\  of  five  inches  diameter,  may  be  sufficiently  strong  for  a  62-inch 
wire,  while  they  Should  not  be  of  less  than  7  or  8  inches  diameter  for  an  86-inch  wire. 

110.  The  Oouch-RoUs  especially  should  have  a  copper  casing  of  not  less  than  /g 

17 


130 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Fig.  63. 


or  I  inch  thickness,  and  a  diameter  of  from  12  to  15  inches  for  wide  machines,  sup- 
ported inside  by  many  iron  spiders  on  a  strong  iron  shaft. 

Hand-made  paper  was  taken  from  the  mould,  and  stretched  out  on  a  felt  by  a 
clever  movement,  and  the  workman  who  performed  this  part  of  the  operation  was 
called  the  "coucher."  The  couch-rolls  c  and  c',  between  which  the  paper  passes  after  it 
has  been  formed  on  the  wire,  are  intended  to  do  his  work  and  press  out  water  besides. 

They  are  for  this  purpose  mostly  covered  with  wool  jackets  or  endless  pipe- 
shaped  web,  which,  to  fit  close,  is  used  of  rather  small  size,  and  expanded  by  a 
stretcher  to  the  pi^oper  width. 

Two  wooden  keys,  forming  a  parallelogram  by  joining  on  the  diagonal,  are  often 
driven  and  hammered  into  the  jackets,  and  left  there  until  they  are  sufficiently  widened. 

A  more  convenient  stretcher  is  represented  by  a  j^lan.  Fig.  63,  and  a  section 
Fig.  64. 

A  flat  iron  bar  a,  several  feet  longer  than  the  couch-rolls,  has  fastened  to  it  with 
pins  a  number  of  arms  b,  which  carry  on  their  other  extremities  two  pieces  of  wood 
c  c,  also  longer  than  the  rolls,  about  4  inches  thick,  and  well 
rounded  where  they  receive  the  jackets.  The  arms  b  are  fastened 
with  pins  d  d  d  in  such  a  way  in  c  c  that  nothing  projects  on  the 
flat  sides  of  the  wood  to  touch  the  woollen  cloth.  The  flat  iron 
terminates  in  a  screw  e,  and  when  the  jacket  is  put  over  the 
stretcher,  the  knot  g  is  screwed  down  on  a  wooden  cross-piece  r, 
which  presses  on  the  keys  c  c  and  opens  them  out.  Care  must  be 
taken  in  the  construction  of  this  stretcher  to  make  and  fasten  the 
arms  b  exactly  alike,  so  that  the  keys  c  c  will  have  parallel  out- 
sides  in  any  position. 

The  jackets  are  soaked  in  hot  water  before  being  put  on  the 
stretcher,  and  are  left  there  until  they  are  perfectly  dry,  or,  what 
is  better,  until  they  are  used,  as  they  cannot  then  shrink  if  they 
should  happen  to  get  wet  or  damp. 

A  jacket  thus  extended  is  easily  drawn  over  the  couch-rolls, 
its  ends  are  sewed  together  with  strong  twine,  and  cold  water  is 
thrown  on  it  until  it  shrinks  tight  on  the  roll.  The  jackets  can 
be  and  are  frequently  shrunk  on  the  couchers  with  hot  water ;  but 
they  are  softened  thereby,  and  will  not  jireserve  their  straight 
lines  across  so  well,  nor  last  so  long,  as  if  treated  with  cold  water. 

Some  air  will  remain  under  the  jackets  while  they  are  being- 
put  on,  and  to  give  it  an  opportunity  to  escape,  a  number  of  small 
holes  must  be  drilled  in  the  shell  of  the  couch-rolls. 

The  jackets  are  very  expensive  and  troublesome,  and  to  do 
away  with  them,  rolls  covered  with  soft  vulcanized  rubber,  have 
Fig.  64.  been  put  in  their  place. 

Messrs.  Curtis  &  Bro.,  at  Newark,  Delaware,  have  used  for  the  last  one  and 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


131 


a  half  years  an  old  iron  press-roll  covered  with  soft  rubber,  in  place  of  the  usual  lower 
coj)per  couch-roll,  and  they  are  very  well  satisfied  with  it. 

Iron  or  any  other  kind  of  metal  rolls  will  answer  if  they  are  thus  covered,  and 
the  invention  may  be,  and  has  been  applied  to  all  the  carrying-rolls.  The  soft  rubber 
covers  will  not  only  save  the  labor  and  money  spent  for  jackets,  but  the  reduction  of 
the  friction  on  the  rolls  will  give  a  longer  lease  of  life  to  every  wire-cloth. 

The  patent  for  this  invention  is  owned  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Harding,  publisher  of  the 
Inquirer  at  Philadelphia,  Penna. 

The  upper  couch-roll  c'  is  connected  to  levers  and  weights  on  both  ends,  which 
increase  its  pressure  on  the  paper. 

Instead  of  the  ordinary  single  lever,  our  drawing  represents  a  "  compound  lever." 
The  rod  i",  which  is  hooked  to  the  frame  of  the  up^^er  couclier,  is  fastened  to  the  first 
lever  i'  by  means  of  a  nut.  This  lever  i'  rests  in  the  hanger  i*,  and  the  second  lever 
I  turns  in  the  bracket-bearing  i',  near  which  it  is  connected  with  the  first  lever  i'  by 
a  pin  I*.  The  weight  can  be  shifted  to  any  point  of  the  lever  i,  thus  increasing  or 
decreasing  the  pressure,  and  accomplishing  as  much  as  the  heavy  cumbrous  weights 
usually  seen  on  the  long  single  levers.  These  comj)ound  levers  will  give  perfect  satis- 
faction as  long  as  they  turn  freely  on  the  connecting  pin  i",  which  should  be  kept 
well  greased  or  lined  with  brass,  to  prevent  rusting. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  upper  couch-roll  should  be  put  on  the  lower  one 
exactly  parallel,  after  a  new  wire  has  been  put  on  the  machine.  In  fact,  all  the  rolls 
must  be  parallel,  or  the  wire  will  not  run  well ;  but  if  the  upper  couch-roll  is  out  of 
its  true  line,  the  wire  will  become  twisted  and  run  in  wrinkles,  or  stretch  unevenly, 
and  spoil  in  a  very  short  time.  The  journals  of  the  couch-roll  c',  as  shown  in  our 
drawing,  run  in  boxes  fastened  to  levers  m,  supported  by  and  turning  on  pivots  or 
studs,  so  that  the  roll  can  be  lifted  off  and  on  quickly,  and  without  changing  its 
parallel  position,  by  simply  turning  these  levers  m  up  or  down. 

The  action  of  the  suction-boxes  in  addition  to  their  weight  causes  the  ultrama- 
rine to  settle  to  the  lower  side  of  the  paper,  and  to  counteract  this  influence  the  upper 
coucher  has  been  pierced  with  numerous  holes,  and  connected  with  a  pumji  which 
draws  the  air  out  of  it,  thus  creating  suction  on  the  upper  side ;  but  we  have  not 
been  able  to  learn  anything  about  the  practical  working  of  this  plan. 

The  lower  coucher  is  driven  by  a  pulley  c"  on  shaft  and  can  be  put  in  and 
out  of  motion  by  the  coupling  k  and  lever  k'. 

The  lever  k',  which,  stands  upright,  while  the  wire  is  in  motion,  disconnects  the 
coupling  if  simply  pulled  backward.  A  very  ingenious  device  is  used  to  hold  the 
lever  in  its  upright  position,  but  as  it  is  also  applied  to  the  presses,  and  more  distinctly 
shown  on  Plate  II,  and  explained  on  the  corresponding  pages,  we  refer  to  them. 
An  arrangement,  by  which  the  coupling  can  be  thrown  in  or  out  from  the  driving 
side,  could  be  constructed  much  simpler,  but  it  would  not  answer  the  purpose  so 
well,  because  the  machine-tender,  whose  place  is  at  the  front  side,  should  be  able  to 
stop  the  wire  quickly  in  case  of  accident. 


132 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


A  copper  sprinkling-pipe  l,  across  the  upper  coucher,  gives  it  a  constant  wash- 
ing, the  water  of  which  is  prevented  from  going  around  the  roll  by  the  guard-board 
L"  and  the  little  copper  roll  l'.  The  guard-board  l"  is  made  of  a  three-inch  plank 
of  good  tough  Avood,  cut  to  fit  the  roll,  and  its  narrow  edge  is  covered  with  double 
thick  felting,  tacked  to  the  sides,  which  can  be  renewed  when  necessary.  It  is  bolted 
to  iron  frames  m'  on  each  side,  which  form  part  of  the  movable  levers  m,  and  thus 
held  down  on  the  roll  c;',  whether  the  latter  is  in  working  position  or  raised  up. 

The  paper  breaks  frequently,  for  the  simple  reason  that  this  guard-board  is  not 
Well  fitted  to  the  roll,  and  the  water  consequently  runs  through  on  the  web  in  some 
place,  making  it  more  wet  and  tender  there  than  anywhere  else.  Though  the  break 
may  occur  on  the  presses,  or  even  at  the  calenders,  it  can  often  be  traced  back  to 
this  cause. 

At  other  times  the  paper  is  crushed  between  the  couchers,  and  breaks  in  con- 
sequence, or  retains  a  cloudy  appearance.  This  indicates  that  the  pulp  has  not  been 
well  enough  formed  into  paper ;  that  it  carries  too  much  water,  and  is  too  soft  to 
withstand  the  pressure  of  the  upper  coucher.  It  may  be  so  from  imperfect  working 
of  the  suction-boxes  or  from  too  great  a  dilution  of  the  pulp.  The  remedy  in  this 
case  is  to  restore  a  good  suction,  mix  the  pulp  with  less  water,  or  reduce  the  shaking 
motion.  If  very  heavy  paper  is  to  be  made,  and  the  stuff  has  not  been  beaten  as 
short  as  it  should  be,  the  side  which  rests  on  the  wire,  may  be  formed  into  a  web  too 
quickly,  prevent  the  escape  of  water  from  the  pulp  above  it,  and  the  paper  must  be- 
come crushed  and  cloudy.  Stuff  of  this  character  should  be  worked  into  lighter  paper. 

111.  Tube-Rolls. — It  is  evidently  of  importance  that  we  should  be  enabled  to 
draw  as  much  water  as  possible  from  the  web  while  it  is  on  the  wire.  If  we  observe 
the  discharge  of  water  through  a  wire-cloth,  we  find  that  more  water  leaves  where 
it  is  supported  by  one  of  the  tube-rolls  b  b,  or  at  the  points  of  contact,  than  in  the 
open  spaces.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  stream  which  constantly  flows  over  the 
surface  of  these  rolls,  connecting  with  the  pulp  on  the  wire,  and  thus  drawing  the 
water  from  it  by  contact  or  capillary  attraction,  while  its  weight  alone  has  to  force  it 
away  where  there  are  no  rolls. 

It  is  therefore  advisable  to  use  a  great  number  of  tube-rolls. 

112.  Suction-Boxes. — Much  water  is  also  extracted  by  the  suction-boxes.  They 
are  water-tight  boxes  n  n  made  of  wood  or  metal,  which  have  no  communication 
with  the  air  except  through  the  wire  which  is  passing  over  them.  The  water  is 
drawn  from  these  boxes  by  suction,  produced  in  the  oldest  machines  by  bell-shaped 
air-pumps.  At  the  present  time  syphons  or  suction-pumps  are  used  for  that 
purpose. 

The  pipes  n'  are  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  boxes  n  ;  descend  as  deep  as  can 
conveniently  be  done,  say  from  10  to  18  feet,  and  are  provided  with  a  valve  or  stop- 
cock as  low  down  as  feasible.  The  box  n  and  pipe  n'  are  kept  full  of  water  all  the 
time,  and  when  the  wire  has  been  started  and  the  pulp  is  spread  on  it,  the  machine- 
tender  opens  the  cock,  the  water  runs  out,  creates  a  vacuum  underneath  the  wire;  the 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


133 


atmospheric  pressure  on  top  forces  the  water  out  of  the  pulp,  and  keeps  up  the  stream, 
which  escapes  through  the  pipe.  To  understand  the  action  of  this  syphon  thoroughly 
we  shall  examine  the  pressure  exercised  by  the  atmosphere  in  a  given  case. 

The  pressure  of  an  atmosphere,  as  shown  by'  the  barometer,  is  equal  to  that  of  a 
column  of  quicksilver  of  from  26  to  29  inches  height,  or  (quicksilver  being  fourteen 
times  as  heavy  as  water)  of  a  column  of  water  14  x  26  =  364  inches  =  30|  feet  high. 

The  pressure,  with  which  water  is  forced  from  the  pulp,  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
atmosi^here,  less  the  resistance  offered  on  the  lower  side.  If  the  wire-cloth  fits  air- 
tight on  the  box,  and  the  syphon-pipe  descends,  for  example,  18  feet,  the  air  can  offer 
resistance  on  the  lower  side  only  through  this  column  of  18  feet  of  water,  and  will  be 
reduced  to  30  less  18  =  12  feet.  The  water  is  therefore  forced  from  the  paper  with 
a  pressure  of  30  less  12  =  18  feet,  or  with     =  |  of  an  atmosphere. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  also  equal  to  15  pounds  on  every  square  inch 
of  surface,  and  the  suction  which  draws  the  water  from  the  paper  is  therefore,  for  our 
example,  |  of  15  pounds,  or  9  pounds  for  every  square  inch  of  open  suction-box  cov- 
ered by  the  web.  The  pressure  on  a  sheet  of  60  inches  width  on  an  uncovered  box 
of  6  inches  inside  width  would  amount  to  6  x  60  x  9  =  3240  pounds. 

The  pressure  is,  as  we  have  shown,  always  equal  to  that  of  the  column  of  water 
in  the  pipe ;  the  longer  the  vertical  height  of  the  syphon,  the  stronger  the  suction. 
It  is,  however,  limited  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  or  less  than  30  feet. 

If  the  vertical  depth  of  the  syphon-pipe  would  be  over  30  feet,  it  could  not  be 
balanced  by  the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  would  remain  empty  and  useless. 

The  quantity  of  water  drawn  away  by  the  suction-boxes  can  in  a  measure  be 
regulated  by  the  valve  or  stop-cock.  If  the  pipe  be  too  large  and  fully  opened,  more 
water  will  escape  than  can  be  replaced  from  the  pulp,  air  enters,  and  the  suction  is  at 
an  end  until  the  syphon  is  refilled  and  started  again.  Whenever  the  paper  breaks, 
or  if  from  any  other  cause  air  finds  access  through  the  wire,  or  if  the  pulp  furnishes 
an  insufiicient  quantity  of  water  to  fill  the  pipes,  the  syphon-pipes  run  empty  and 
must  be  primed  again. 

In  many  mills  the  paper-machine  is  so  little  elevated  above  the  tail-race  that  a 
strong  suction  by  syphons  cannot  be  obtained,  and  then  the  artificial  suction  of  pumps 
must  be  resorted  to.  They  work  as  long  as  they  are  moving,  require  no  attention, 
and  are  often  preferred  even  where  long  syphon-pipes  could  be  used.  It  is  true  that 
they  consume  power,  but  they  can  also  be  made  to  throw  the  liquid,  which  escapes 
through  the  boxes,  back  into  the  mixing-box,  and  thus  effect  a  saving  which  may 
compensate  for  the  power.*  The  suction  of  a  syphon-pipe  is  limited  by  its  height, 
while  the  speed  of  the  pumps,  and  with  it  the  quantity  of  water  withdrawn,  may  be 
increased  or  decreased,  as  desired. 

Any  good  suction-pump  answers  for  this  purpose,  but  a  pair  of  double-acting 
piston-pumps,  driven  by  cranks  placed  at  right  angles  on  the  same  shaft,  keep  up  a 
continual  stream,  and  are  used  in  many  mills. 

We  have  also  seen  the  suction  produced  by  a  roughly  constructed  apparatus. 


134 


MANVFAGTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  3IACHINEBY. 


which  works  on  the  same  principle  as  Giffard's  well-known  boiler-injector,  but  con- 
sider the  live  steam  consumed  in  it  more  expensive  and  less  reliable  than  pumps. 

If  the  boxes  are  not  covered,  the  wire-cloth  is  bent  in  by  the  heavy  pressure 
on  it,  and  the  strong  friction  on  the  corners  cannot  fail  to  injure  it  in  the  course  of 
time.  Perforated  metal  plates  have  been  and  are  used  to  prevent  this,  but  those 
made  of  hard  rubber  {  to  |  inch  thick  are  now  generally  preferred.  They  have  as 
many  holes  as  can  be  drilled  into  them  without  weakening  the  plate.  If  these  holes 
are  made  funnel-shaped,  with  the  wide  side  on  top,  they  will  fill  up  with  the  fibres, 
slime,  and  clay  from  the  paper,  and  soon  become  useless ;  they  should  be  either  straight 
through,  or  rather  a  little  wider  below,  to  make  sure  that  they  will  not  be  obstructed. 
A  j)atent  has  lately  been  taken  out  for  glass  plates,  which  would  not  only  be  hard, 
but  permit  the  inside  of  the  boxes  to  be  seen  while  the  sliding  heads  are  adjusted. 

A  slide  at  each  end  of  the  box  can  be  moved  farther  in  and  out  by  a  brass  screw 
and  hand-wheel  n^,  to  suit  any  width  of  paper.  The  space  between  the  slide  and  the 
end  of  the  box  would  facilitate  the  admittance  of  air  below  the  web  of  paper,  if  it 
were  not  filled  with  water;  a  small  stream  is  therefore  constantly  pouring  into  it 
through  the  pipe  n^. 

If  very  wide  paper  is  made  and  the  slides  are  near  the  ends,  the  screws  moving 
them  project  considerably  outside  of  the  box  and  form  an  obstruction  to  the  free 
access  and  passage  to  and  along  the  machine. 

Messrs.  William  Russell  &  Son,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  are  the  owners  of  an  inven- 
tion which  is  an  improvement  on  the  ordinary  sliding  head.  Fig.  65  is  a  perspective 
view  and  Fig.  66  a  section  through  the  middle  of  it. 

A  represents  a  section  of  round  rubber  packing,  held  loosely  between  two 
metallic  heads  b  b  and  c  c,  the  said  packing  being  fitted  so  as  to  slide  easily  in  the 
box  when  not  compressed  between  the  heads  b  b  and  c  c.  d  is  a  brass  journal  or 
hub,  with  a  male  thread  fitting  another  thread  tapped  into  the  half  of  the  head 
marked  c  c.  The  cylinder  e  has  a  brass  pipe  f  soldered  to  it,  and  can  thus  be  made 
as  long  as  may  be  desired.  It  ends  with  the  head  g  inside,  and  extends  to  the  out- 
side of  the  suction-box  with  the  pipe  f,  which  carries  there  a  hand-wheel,  by  which 
it  can  be  turned. 

Fig.  65  shows  the  form  of  the  heads  of  d  and  g.  By  turning  the  hand-wheel  on  r, 
and  with  it  the  cylinder  e  and  head  g,  the  hub  d  can  be  moved  to  the  right  or  left, 
the  plate  c  moved  in  or  out,  and  the  rubber  packing  a  pressed  tight  or  set  free. 

A  few  turns  of  the  screw  loosen  the  packing  and  permit  the  sliding  head  to  be 
pushed  to  any  desired  place,  while  a  few  turns  the  other  way  tighten  the  packing 
again.  It  can  be  seen  from  Fig.  65  that  by  giving  half  a  turn  to  the  head  g  it  can 
be  pushed  out  of  d  to  the  inside  of  the  box.  The  rod  or  pipe  f,  instead  of  being  an 
obstruction  outside,  can  thus  be  always  kept  inside  of  the  box,  entirely  out  of  the 
way.    The  collar  h  prevents  the  plate  c  from  being  screwed  out  altogether. 

The  position  of  these  heads  can  be  changed  quickly ;  they  close  tightly,  and  are 
of  simple  construction. 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


135 


To  prevent  the  water  from  being  forced  out  of  the  paper  with  more  power  near 
the  point  where  the  syphon-pipe  enters  the  box  than  elsewhere,  the  suction-boxes 
have  a  false  bottom  with  an  opening  in  the  centre.  The  suction-pipe  may  be  fastened 
to  any  point  of  the  lower  chamber,  as  it  cannot  act  directly  on  the  wire. 

The  stands  n"'  carry  planks  n',  and  on  them,  mounted  on  three  iron  frames,  the 
suction-boxes.  When  a  new  wire  is  to  be  put  on,  these  three  iron  frames  are  re- 
moved, the  suction-pipes  detached,  the  boxes  lowered  to  the  planks  n',  and  pushed 
out  to  the  front  side  of  the  machine. 

The  wire  is  subjected  to  friction  on  these  suction-boxes,  not  only  in  the  direction 
in  which  it  runs,  but  also  sideways  from  the  shaking  motion.  This  latter  friction, 
though  very  slight  and  rather  harmless,  can  be  entirely  avoided  by  hanging  the  boxes 
to  the  frame  or  bars  e  by  means  of  bolts,  so  that  they  will  be  shaken  with  the  wire. 


Fig.  65.  Fig.  66. 


It  has  already  been  explained  that  the  air  must  be  thoroughly  excluded  from 
the  suction-boxes.  This  is  only  possible  if  there  is  no  hollow  space  left  between 
them  and  the  wire,  if  the  latter  fits  closely  all  around.  Great  care  must  therefore  be 
taken  to  have  the  boxes  perfectly  level  and  in  line  with  the  adjoinmg  rolls. 

When  a  suction-box  refuses  to  work,  it  will  mostly  be  found,  that  air  has  gained 
admittance  somewhere;  sometimes  one  side,  or  only  a  corner,  does  not  touch  the 
wire.  We  have  seen  much  trouble  from  such  simple  causes,  when,  by  raising  the 
low  corner  or  side  by  means  of  a  key,  perfect  suction  would  be  obtanied. 


136 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


By  means  of  the  set-screws  n''  in  the  stands  n*,  the  slightest  changes  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  planks  n'  and  of  the  boxes  can  be  effected. 

113.  Dandy-Roll. — Two  suction-boxes,  at  a  short  distance  from  each  other, 
are  supplied  to  most  machines.  Between  them,  if  used  at  all,  on  top  of  the  wire 
and  sujjported  by  bearings  o^,  fastened  on  the  bars  e,  is  a  wire-roll  o,  open  at  both 
ends. 

It  is  constructed  of  a  hollow  brass  shaft  with  numerous  brass  spiders,  which 
carry  wooden  or  sheet-copper  strips  of  the  length  of  the  roll.  Strong  wire  is  wound 
around  the  frame,  thus  formed,  in  numerous  circles,  and  the  wire-cloth  is  sewed  to  it. 
This  is  the  dandy-roll  o,  justly  named  so,  because  it  gives  to  the  paper  any  desired 
fashionable  appearance.  It  closes  up  the  web  a  little  tighter,  and  covers,  like  good 
cloth  on  a  worthless  body,  some  of  its  defects.  If  no  particular  mark  or  wove  paper 
is  wanted,  the  dandy  may  be  covered  with  the  same  wire-cloth  as  that  on  which  it 
runs.  But  if  any  water-mark  or  impression,  such  as  laid,  ripped,  or  squared  paper, 
a  name  or  figures  are  desired,  wires  representing  every  line  of  the  design  must  be 
sewed  on  the  cloth  covering  the  dandy.  If  the  design  is  to  fill  just  one  sheet,  the 
circumference  of  the  roll  must  be  exactly  as  long  as  a  sheet. 

The  projecting  wires  press  into  the  already  formed^  but  yet  soft,  paper  and  dis- 
place some  2:)ulp.  The  paper  is  therefore  thinner  in  those  places,  and  shows  the  lines 
through  their  greater  transparency.  With  a  skilfully  covered  dandy,  water-marks 
of  almost  any  pattern  can  be  produced. 

The  friction  received  from  the  contact  with  the  wire-cloth  turns  the  roll,  but  if 
the  latter  is  too  heavy,  parts  of  the  wet  sheet  will  adhere  to  it  so  closely  that  they  are 
torn  out.  The  dandy  is  therefore  made  as  light  as  possible,  and  no  weights  or„  screws 
are  used  on  it ;  for  the  same  reason  it  is  impracticable  to  make  it  of  very  large  diam- 
eter. The  bearings  can  however  be  set  higher  or  lower  by  means  of  set-screws, 
thus  regulating,  to  some  extent,  the  pressure  of  the  roll  on  the  paper. 

The  stands  o'  carry  a  wooden  strip  o^,  to  which  a  piece  of  felting  is  tacked.  This 
felting  touches  the  dandy  all  along ;  it  serves  as  a  doctor,  and  retains  particles  of  pulp 
which  may  be  carried  up  from  the  web. 

114.  Save-All  and  Water-Pipes. — Between  the  suction-boxes  and  the  breast-roll, 
close  under  the  numerous  little  tube-rolls  b,  extends  the  save-all  p,  supported  by 
stands  on  both  sides.  It  is  a  flat  wooden  box,  about  3  inches  deep,  receiving  all  the 
liquid  which  leaves  the  pulp  above  it,  and  emptying  it  into  the  fan-pump  p'  pre- 
viously described  and  represented  by  Figs.  51  and  52.  The  outlet  from  the  save-all 
to  the  fan-pump  is  closed  by  a  simple  gate,  and  can  be  opened  by  pulling  the  handle 
p'  on  the  front  side  of  the  machine. 

To  the  save-all  p  is  also  attached  on  its  lower  side  a  wooden  doctor-board  p^, 
which  constantly  scrapes  the  breast-roll  a,  and  is  therefore  covered  with  felt  on  the 
touching  edge.  A  water-pipe  r'  pours  in  a  little  stream  of  water,  by  which  it  is  kept 
clean. 

A  water-pipe  b^,  with  a  gqose-neck,  is  attached  to  the  large  supply-pipe  r  ;  a 


PAPEB  -  MA  CmJSfES. 


137 


rubber  hose  can  be  connected  with  it,  and  a  stream  of  water  provided  at  nearly  any 
point  of  the  machine. 

As  soon  as  the  wire  has  left  the  couch-roll  on  its  return  trip,  it  is  washed  by  a 
steady  stream  from  a  shower-pipe  e^.  This  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  removing  any 
particles  of  pulp  which  may  stick  to  the  wire,  and  the  shower  will  be  as  much  more 
effective  as  the  pressure  of  water,  which  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  is  stronger. 
The  pipe  should  at  all  events  be  supplied  from  the  highest  available  reservoir. 
If  this  washing  is  not  thoroughly  done,  the  pulj)  which  adheres  to  the  wire  will  be 
removed  by  the  next  roll  d  or  d'  which  it  meets,  and  wind  itself  round  it. 

Wherever  this  is  the  case,  mostly  on  the  ends,  the  diameter  of  the  roll  is  in- 
creased by  the  coat  of  pulp ;  the  wire  is  thereby  stretched,  soon  bulged  out  in  all  its 
length,  and  marks  or  breaks  tlie  paper.  To  correct  these  misfortunes  the  machine- 
tender,  to  whose  inattention  they  must  be  ascribed,  resorts  to  stretching  the  whole 
wire-cloth  to  the  same  length  to  which  the  bulged-out  portions  have  been  extended. 

115.  Stretch-Roll. — This  he  does  principally  with  the  stretch-roll  d',  and  he 
should  take  care  to  move  the  boxes  g"  on  both  sides  to  exactly  the  same  distance  from 
the  bars  e,  so  that  the  roll  will  remain  level. 

Each  time  the  threads  of  the  wire-cloth  are  extended  in  this  way,  they  are  also 
weakened,  and  while  even  the  length  of  a  well-managed  cloth  increases  through  con- 
tinued tension  in  the  course  of  time,  it  speaks  badly  for  the  quality  of  either  the 
machine,  wire,  or  machine-tender,  if  it  is  violently  lengthened  by  stretcliing.  Many 
wires  are  not  allowed  to  die  a  natural  death  from  regular  wear  and  tear,  but  are 
killed  by  repeated  stretching,  the  result  of  the  described  causes,  or  of  ignorance  or 
neglect. 

The  much-used  doctor  will  be  found  an  efficient  remedy  against  the  collection 
of  pulp  on  the  ends  or  any  other  part  of  the  rolls  d  and  especially  the  stretch- 
roll  d'. 

It  is  represented  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  I,  as  attached  to  d',  and  consists  simply  of  a 
board  s,  supported  by  the  iron  hangers  s',  which  are  fastened  to  the  save-all  p,,  and 
can  be  lowered  or  raised  with  the  roll  d'. 

116.  Stuff-Catchers. — A  box,  not  shown  in  the  drawing,  extending  under  the 
coucher  c  and  the  shower-pipe  receives  all  the  pulp  washed  off  from  the  wire  by 
the  latter.  Whenever  the  machine  stops  or  starts,  some  of  the  pulp,  too  thin  to  form 
a  sheet,  goes  into  this  box,  and  it  is  here  where  the  largest  and  most  valualjle  portion 
of  wasted  stuff  is  gathered.  It  can,  with  difficulty  only,  be  removed  from  there  while 
the  machine  is  running.  It  is  preferable  to  let  the  contents  empty  themselves  through 
a  spout,  starting  from  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  leading  to  a  stuff-catcher  situated 
anywhere  near  or  below  the  machine,  so  that  the  stuff  can  flow  into  it. 

Sometimes  all  the  jDulp  and  liquid  lost  on  the  machine  is  gathered  in  a  tub  or 
cistern,  and  pumped  into  an  upper  story,  whence  it  is  drawn  off  to  be  used  in  place 
of  the  pure  water,  with  which  the  pulp  is  usually  emptied  from  the  beaters. 

Both  receiving  tubs,  the  one  below  the  machine  and  the  one  above  the  beaters, 

18 


138 


MANTJFACTUltE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


must  be  furnished  with  agitators  to  prevent  the  floating  fibres  from  settling  on  the 
bottom. 

If  no  such  agitators  are  used,  or  if  they  are  stopped  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time,  some  of  the  mass,  which  sticks  to  the  sides  and  lodges  on  the  bottom,  seems 
to  undergo  a  rotting  process  or  fermentation,  and  the  whole  liquid  changes  into  a 
fluid  of  dark,  imj^ure  color,  damaging  the  paper  for  which  it  is  used. 

The  waste  water  contains  fibres,  sizing  and  coloring  matters,  and  deposits  a  dark 
slimy  mass  on  the  sides  of  vessels  wherein  it  remains  for  some  time,  Avhich  even  the 
agitators  do  not  seem  to  prevent  from  settling. 

Considering  the  power  which  is  requii'ed  to  lift  this  waste  water  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  mill,  and  the  danger  of  having  the  paper  spoiled  by  it,  it  may  be  found 
advisable  to  save  only  the  fibres  and  to  let  the  liquid  run  off. 

Of  the  many  stuff-catchers  which  have  been  constructed  to  accomplish  this,  a 
simple  and  effective  one  may  be  here  described :  It  is  built  on  the  same  principle  as 
an  ordinary  rag-duster ;  only  ^lulp  is  substituted  for  rags  and  water  for  dust.  It  con- 
sists of  an  octagonal  cone  open  at  both  ends,  with  a  shaft  through  its  centre,  sus- 
pended in  a  large  wooden  box  or  trough,  on  the  short  sides  of  which  the  shaft  rests 
in  bearings.  Eight  Avooden  frames  are  fitted  to  its  surface,  and  held  there  by  washers; 
they  are  very  similar  to  those  of  an  engine-washer,  only  larger,  and  covered  with 
wire-cloth  on  the  insides. 

The  waste  water  from  the  machine  enters  this  cone  at  the  srnaller  open  end, 
while  it  is  slowly  revolved  by  a  pulley  on  its  shaft. 

The  water  escapes  through  the  wire  and  runs  off,  and  the  pulp  gradually  falls 
out  at  the  wider  end  into  a  receiver  with  drainer-bottom,  from  whence  it  is  removed 
and  carried  to  the  engines. 

The  larger  end,  where  the  pulp  comes  out,  must  be  of  circular  form,  and  fit 
closely  into  another  circle  cut  into  the  box  in  which  it  runs,  so  that  the  pulp  outside 
and  the  liquid  inside  cannot  have  any  communication.  The  longer  the  cone  the 
better,  but  from  5  to  6  feet  length  will  answer  in  most  cases. 

Besides  the  pulp  from  the  couch-rolls  any  other  waste  from  the  machine  can  be 
led  into  this  stuff-catcher,  to  save  the  fibres  contained  in  it. 

117.  The  Shaking  Motion. — The  two  posts  f  and  the  frames  h  are  respectively 
connected  by  iron  cross-bars,  so  that  both  side-frames  may  be  considered  a  unit  as 
far  as  the  shaking  motion  is  concerned.  The  post  f  on  the  back  or  driving  side  of 
the  machine  has  usually  an  elongation  f'  upwards,  and  attached  to  its  highest  end  is 
the  connecting  rod  t,  which  communicates  the  shaking  movement  to  the  machine. 
It  is  placed  high  enough  to  allow  a  man  to  j>ass  under  it.  A  solid  cast-iron,  rather 
ornamental,  column,  called  the  shake-post,  of  which  Fig.  3,  Plate  I,  represents  a  sec- 
tion, contains  an  upright  shaft  t\  driven  at  the  lower  end  by  bevel  wheels  t^,  which 
in  their  turn  are  moved  by  a  pulley  on  the  horizontal  shaft  t^. 

Bevel  friction-wheels  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  bevel  cog-wheels  t^,  but 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


139 


as  the  friction  on  their  surfaces  may  be  reduced  by  grease,  water,  or  condensed  steam, 
their  action  is  not  so  reliable  as  that  of  cog-wheels. 

At  its  upper  end  the  shaft  carries  a  fly-wheel  t",  which  can  be  turned  by  hand 
and  serves  to  start  the  shake,  and  an  eccentric  t',  to  which  the  connecting-rod  t  is 
attached. 

This  arrangement  is  very  expensive ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  a  shake- 
arrangement,  working  on  the  floor  instead  of  overhead,  might  be  constructed  much 
cheaper  and  would  answer  as  well. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  speed  as  well  as  the  length  of  the  shake-movement  may 
be  quickly  changed.  A  set  of  pulleys  of  difl'erent  sizes,  or  cone-pulleys,  give  the 
different  speeds,  and  the  eccentricity  of  which  can  be  easily  changed  by  simply 
sliding  the  upright  journal  to  one  or  the  other  side,  determines  the  length  of  the 
shake. 

It  is  this  shaking  movement,  though  it  is  very  trifling  (about  \  iiich),  which 
makes  the  Fourdrinier  paper  superior  to  that  made  on  a  cylinder-machine.  While 
without  it,  the  fibres  would  only  be  laid  parallel  in  the  direction  in  which  the  wire 
runs,  this  cross  motion  makes  them  intertwine  themselves  in  all  directions,  so  that 
they  will  be  felted  as  completely  as  hand-made  paper. 

It  is  evident  that  the  structure  and  strength  of  the  paper  depends  to  some  extent 
upon  this  movement,  but  only  experience  can  teach  what  speed  and  length  of  shake 
should  be  used  for  a  certain  kind  of  stock  and  paper. 

The  shake  must  be  regulated  so  that  as  much  water  as  possible  will  have  escaped 
through  the  wire  before  the  paper  reaches  the  suction-boxes ;  but,  as  the  fibres  will 
only  felt  themselves  as  long  as  they  are  suspended  in  water,  it  must  also  be 
prevented  from  leaving  too  soon.  A  tumbler  full  of  water  swung  around  very  fast 
in  a  hoop  reaches  often  a  position  in  which  it  is  upside  down,  without  falling,  and 
even  without  losing  a  drop,  the  circular  motion  being  so  intense  that  it  overcomes  the 
weight.  This  is  exactly  what  fast  shaking  will  do ;  the  puljJ  is  moved  sideways  so 
violently  that  the  tendency  of  the  water  to  fall  through  the  meshes  is  checked.  The 
shaking  is  strongest  at  the  breast-roll  and  less  as  the  wire  advances,  so  that,  even 
with  a  rapid  movement,  a  free  pulp  will  find  time  and  room  enough  to  discharge  its 
water. 

Long  and  slow  stuff  does  not  require  much  shaking,  and  though  it  has  been 
only  a  little  diluted  in  the  mixing-box,  it  holds  its  water  with  great  tenacity.  Free 
and  short  stufl"  of  rags,  but  more  especially  of  straw  or  wood,  loses  its  water  faster  than 
is  desirable  for  the  formation  of  a  well-woven,  tough  sheet,  unless  it  is  strongly  diluted 
and  well  shaken. 

118.  The  Deckels. — The  width  of  the  paper  on  the  wire  is  limited  by  a  pair  of 
deckels  u  on  both  sides.  These  deckels  are  always  set  a  few  inches  farther  apart  than 
the  width  of  the  trimmed  paper,  to  allow  a  margin  for  shrinkage  on  the  dryers  and 
for  trimming. 

The  deckels  are  about  1^  inch  square  endless  straps  of  vulcanized  rubber,  which 


140  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


have  taken  the  place  of  those  sewed  together  of  cloth,  as  formerly  used.  They  run 
over  a  number  of  flanged  brass  pulleys  v  and  v',  two  of  which  v'  v'  are  fastened  to  a 
movable  arm.  By  turning  this  arm  up  or  down,  and  then  fastening  it  with  the  set- 
screw  v",  the  deckels  can  be  stretched  to  fit  close  on  the  rolls. 

To  prevent  any  sharp  bends  of  the  deckels,  which  might  cause  them  to  crack 
and  wear  out,  the  end-rolls  must  be  large,  the  larger  the  better.  The  rolls  nearest  to 
the  suction-boxes  are  fastened  on  to  a  separate  shaft  and  stands,  but  all  the  other  ones 
are  supported  by  the  brass  frames  w  w,  which  are  themselves  carried  on  the  shafts 
X  X.  These  shafts  x  x  are  hollow  brass  tubes,  the  ends  of  which  are  filled  with  solid 
wrought-iron  bodies.  Iron  screws,  driven  by  a  worm  and  worm-wheel  y,  fit  into 
these  ends,  and  extend  some  distance  into  the  brass  tubes  x,  which  are  slatted  out  on 
their  lower  side  to  an  equal  distance.  A  brass  nut,  sitting  on  the  screw  inside  of  x, 
connects  through  this  lower  oi^ening  with  a  concentric  collar  or  hub,  which  forms 
part  of  the  frame  w.  The  screw,  being  stationary,  moves  the  nut,  and  with  it  the 
deckel-frame  w  in  accordance  with  the  turns  of  the  worm-wheel  y,  as  directed  by  the 
crank  y'.  The  smaller  ends  of  the  tubes  x  which  carry  the  brass-cased  screws  rest  in 
ball  and  socket  bearings  x',  in  which  they  can  change  their  position.  If  these  bear- 
ings were  straight  and  the  journals  immovable,  the  shaking  motion  would  exercise  a 
constant  strain  on  the  tube  x,  with  a  tendency  to  spring  or  bend  it.  The  two  end-rolls 
or  rather  drums  v  are  wide  enough  to  allow  the  deckels  to  slide  on  them  as  far  as  the 
deckel-frames  w  can  be  shifted. 

The  friction  of  the  wire  is  sufficient,  without  any  driving-pulley,  to  communicate 
to  the  deckels  its  own  sjDced,  and,  since  it  is  indispensable  that  both  should  proceed 
together,  this  answers  the  purpose  perfectly. 

The  frames  w  are  stationary  and  not  allowed  to  touch  the  deckels  anywhere,  as 
they  might  arrest  their  movement,  and  it  is  left  entirely  to  the  weight  and  tension 
of  the  deckels  to  make  them  lay  flat  and  close  on  the  wire. 

The  deckels  must  not  be  allowed  to  have  any  more  play  than  necessary  between 
the  flanges  of  the  carrying  pulleys  v,  as  they  might  move  sideways  to  and  fro,  and 
give  an  uneven  edge  to  the  paper. 

We  have  seen  deckels  slide  out  of  their  places  on  the  first  pulleys  v  and  slip 
under  the  flange,  where  they  jjressed  so  hard  on  the  wire  as  to  crush  and  tear  it  in  an 
incredibly  short  time;  The  accident  was  caused  by  the  carelessness  of  the  machine- 
tender,  who  did  not  adjust  the  deckel  or  the  roll  to  its  proj)er  position  ;  but  it  could 
not  have  happened  if  the  flanges  had  been  larger.  There  can  be  no  harm  in  allow- 
ing them  to  project  as  far  as  half  the  thickness  of  the  deckels  from  the  bodies  of  the 
pulleys. 

If  the  edges  of  the  paper,  on  emerging  from  between  the  deckels,  are  not  sharp 
everywhere,  it  is  an  evidence  that  the  deckels  do  not  lay  close  on  to  the  wire  at  all 
points.  It  may  be  that  there  is  an  unevenness  in  the  deckels  themselves,  or  that  one 
of  them  has  opened  in  the  seam — a  fault  which  can  easily  be  discovered ;  but  in  most 
cases  it  will  be  found  that  one  or  more  of  the  carrying-rolls  b  are  not  perfectly  in 


4 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


141 


line  with  the  rest,  and  that  the  wire,  where  it  is  sujiported  by  the  lower  ones, 
leaves  a  hollow  place  between  itself  and  the  deckel,  into  which  some  of  the  pulp  ex- 
tends. 

The  part  of  the  edge  of  the  paper  which  has  been  deserted  by  these  fibres  has 
been  weakened  in  proportion,  and  frequently  to  such  an  extent  that  it  cannot  with- 
stand the  tension  to  which  the  web  is  subjected  on  its  march  over  the  machine.  The 
paper  therefore  cracks  in  those  places ;  the  rupture,  once  started,  soon  extends  across 
the  whole  web,  and  the  paper  is  broken. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  all  the  rolls  which  carry  the  wire  should  be 
perfectly  level  and  in  line ;  no  new  cloth  should  be  put  in  motion  before  it  has  been 
satisfactorily  tested  whether  such  be  the  case. 

Sometimes  we  find  that  some  of  the  tube-rolls  b  are  not  revolving,  because  they 
are  placed  too  low  to  be  touched  by  the  wire,  and  this  can  easily  be  remedied  by 
raising  their  bearings.  Careless  machine-tenders,  who  neglect  to  oil  their  journals 
well,  and  allow  these  rolls  to  stand  while  the  wire  is  in  motion,  thus  not  only  injure 
the  wire  by  the  increased  friction,  but  the  rolls  themselves  are  flattened  on  the  upper 
side,  lose  their  balance,  and  refuse  to  work  well  afterwards  unless  they  are  again 
turned  in  a  lathe. 

The  deckels  must  also  be  running  perfectly  square  to  these  rolls,  because  other- 
wise the  distance  between  them  would  be  different  all  along,  and  the  edges  of  the 
paper  would  become  undefined  and  weak. 

119.  The  Gates. — As  soon  as  the  stuff  has  left  the  apron  it  reaches  the  gates  z  z, 
consisting  of  brass  sheets,  which  extend  across  the  wire  between  the  deckels,  and  are 
fastened  to  the  frames  w.  Since  their  length  must  be  variable  to  suit  the  different 
widths  of  paper,  they  are  made  of  two  pieces,  sliding  against  each  other,  and  fastened 
together  by  bolts.  Their  height  above  the  wire  can  be  regulated  by  a  screw  z'  at 
each  end ;  and  to  secure  a  sheet  of  uniform  thickness,  this  must  be  done  with  great 
care.  The  paper  cannot  be  of  even  thickness  all  across  unless  the  lower  edges  of  these 
gates  are  in  every  jooint  equally  distant  from  the  wire. 

As  it  is  not  desirable  that  a  sheet  should  begin  to  form  itself  before  the  pulp  has 
reached  the  gate,  the  leather  or  cloth  extension  of  the  apron  must  cover  the  wire  to 
within  about  one  inch  from  it.  The  wire  in  constantly  pulling  this  leather,  gradually 
stretches  it  forward  until  it  sometimes  reaches  the  gate,  obstructing  perhaps  in  one  or 
more  spots  the  passage  under  it.  The  paper  becomes  thin  and  weak  in  such  places, 
and  breaks.  We  have  seen  machine-tenders  make  broken  paper  for  hours,  because 
they  did  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  the  gates  and  the  apron. 

The  3  to  6  inches  space  between  the  two  gates  z  are  filled  to  some  height  with 
pulp,  which  receives  here  the  strongest  shaking  motion,  and  being  well  diluted,  inter- 
twines the  fibres  more  thoroughly  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  wire.  . 

An  inexperienced  machine-tender  may,  in  altering  the  gates  or  sluices,  raise  one 
end  and  lower  the  other,  and  perhaps  reverse  this  on  the  second  gate,  thus  making 
the  production  of  a  good  sheet  of  paper  impossible ;  but,  not  knowing  the  cause,  he 


142 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


will  blame  the  wire  for  it,  and  probably  not  only*stretch  and  ruin  it,  but  make  poor 
paper  besides. 

If  the  corners  of  the  apron  are  fixed  square  and  tidy,  the  gates  perfectly  level 
and  opening  just  for  the  right  thickness ;  if  the  deckels  are  square  and  running  free 
and  close  on  the  wire,  and  the  rolls  are  set  in  line ;  and  if  the  pulp  is  of  the  right 
mixture,  good  edges  will  certainly  be  obtained. 

120.  Length  of  the  Wire-Cloth. — The  paper-makers  of  the  United  States  seem  to 
have  settled  on  33  feet  as  the  most  appropriate  length  of  a  wire-cloth ;  but  if  the 
speed  is  going  on  increasing  at  the  rate  it  has  done  lately,  the  pulp  will  not  remain 
sufficiently  long  on  such  a  wire  to  form  a  sheet,  and  longer  ones  will  become  a 
necessity. 

121.  Wire-Guides. — It  has  been  mentioned  before  that  the  wire  is  kept  in  its 
place  by  the  guide-roll  b',  which  is  regulated  by  the  machine-tender.  Many  mechan- 
isms have  been  invented  to  do  this  automatically,  and  some  are  used  successfully. 

Mr.  Warner  Miller,  of  Herkimer,  New  York,  has  introduced  Thiery's  wire- 
guide  in  this  country,  and  it  is  now  used  on  a  large  number  of  machines.  A  view  of 
it  is  given  in  Fig.  67. 

Fig.  67. 


Any  one  of  the  rolls  d  (Plate  I)  which  support  the  wire  on  its  return  trip  may 
be  us§d  as  a  guide-roll  in  connection  with  this  apparatus.  The  author  has  placed  the 
guide  under  the  save-all  p,  because  space  for  it  was  more  available  there  than  else- 
where; but  it  had  to  be  put  on  separate  frames  bolted  to  the  sills  in  order  to  reach  the 
wire.  The  two  bearings  of  the  wire-guide  take  the  place  of  those  g"  on  the  column  g. 
The  one  on  the  driving  side  is  stationary,  but  the  one  on  the  front  side  can  be  moved 
back  and  forward  by  a  screw,  with  which  it  is  connected.  The  wire  passes  first 
over  the  roll  and  then  between  two  plates  of  sheet  copper  fastened  vertically  on  a 
strip  of  wood,  which  is  sujjported  by  movable  levers. 

If  the  wire  shifts  to  either  side  it  touches  one  of  the  copper  plates,  takes  it  along, 
and  with  it  the  wooden  cross-piece.  The  angular  lever  on  the  front  side  is  thus  set 
in  motion,  and  through  it  a  double  ratchet  or  hook  connected  with  it  by  a  wire  rod. 


PA  FEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


143 


A  narrow  brass  cylinder  or  plate  is  stationed  between  the  two  points  of  the  double 
ratchet  or  hook,  teeth  corresponding  with  the  respective  points  are  cut  in  on  either 
side,  and  it  forms  thus  a  double  ratchet-wheel.  The  double  hook  or  ratchet  receives 
a  vacillating  motion  by  means  of  a  crank-pin,  which  moves  in  a  sleeve  and  turns 
with  the  guide-roll.  Whenever  the  wire  shifts  back  or  forward,  one  of  the  two  points 
of  the  double  hook  comes  in  contact  with  the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  ratchet- 
wheel,  one  side  of  which  is  cut  to  turn  with  and  the  other  against  the  sun.  The 
ratchet-wheel  turns  a  nut  on  which  it  is  fastened,  and  with  it  the  screw  and  bearing 
of  the  guide-roll.  If  the  wire  shifts,  for  instance,  to  the  front  side,  the  screw  moves 
the  bearing  forwards  in  the  direction  in  which  the  wire  runs. 

This  simple  apparatus  not  only  saves  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  attention  to  the 
machine-tender,  but  prevents,  especially  on  fast-running  machines,  the  loss  of  many 
wires,  which  may  be  ruined  in  a  very  short  time  while  the  machine-tender  is  careless 
or  employed  somewhere  else.  Like  all  other  improvements  of  this  kind,  the  apparatus 
must  be  kept  in  good  order ;  otherwise  it  is.  worse  than  usaless,  as  it  lulls  the  attend- 
ant's vigilance  with  a  false  security. 

122.  Patent  Cleaning-Brush. — Where  paper  is  made  of  very  dirty  or  slimy  pulp, 
the  meshes  of  the  wire  become  sometimes  filled  up  so  that  they  cannot  be  cleaned 
while  running,  and  brushes  are  then  resorted  to,  by  the  use  of  which  it  receives  a 
severe  rubbing  while  the  machine  is  stopped.  This  proceeding,  though  it  may 
answer  the  purpose,  is  very  troublesome  and  injurious  to  the  wire.  The  author  has 
received  a  patent  for  a  revolving  cleaning-brush,  pressed  against  the  wire  from  below. 
This  brush  q  consists  of  a  wooden  cylinder  studded  with  bristles,  the  iron  shaft  of 
which  rests  in  bearings,  which  are  supported  by  stands  fastened  to  the  sill  of  the 
wire-frame.  It  may  be  pressed  against  the  wire  either  by  weights  or  leverage,  or 
simply  held  tight  against  it  by  fastening  the  bearings  to  the  stands  with  set-screws. 
A  small  pulley  on  its  shaft  is  turned  by  a  belt  and  pulley  from  the  coucher-shaft  in 
a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  wire.  We  have  used  it  frequently,  and  it  has 
never  failed  to  accomplish  its  task.  When  the  brush  is  not  needed,  it  is  let  down 
out  of  reach  of  the  wire,  that  it  may  not  be  unnecessarily  used  up. 

If  the  wire  is  clogged  up  with  fatty  matters  (printers'  ink,  paint,  &c.),  it  is 
better  to  dissolve  them  first  by  shutting  off  all  water  and  pouring  coal-oil,  or  rather 
benzine,  on  the  coucher  c',  and  then  to  start  the  wire  and  the  brush. 

123.  Management  of  Wires. — We  will  here  add  some  extracts  from  articles  pub- 
lished by  "Papyrus"  (Adam  Kamage)  in  Nos.  32  and  34  of  the  Paper  Trade 
Reporter  on  the  management  and  putting  on  of  new  wires  : 

"The  wire  is  the  most  expensive  as  well  as  the  most  important  part  of  the  clothing  of  a  Four- 
drinier  machine  ;  the  length  of  time  it  will  run,  and  the  quantity  of  paper  it  will  make,  greatly  depend 
upon  how  it  is  managed  in  the  putting  on,  and  especially  upon  how  it  is  run  for  the  first  few  hours.  A 
little  carelessness  or  ignorance  in  its  management  at  this  time  is  often  a  source  of  trouble  and  expense 
as  long  as  it  lasts ;  consequently  every  precaution  ought  to  be  taken  to  insure  it  a  fair  start.  When  a 
new  wire  is  to  be  put  on,  both  machine-tenders  and  the  helpers  ought  to  be  present;  also  the  foreman 


■ 


144  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 

of  the  mill  or  some  responsible  person,  who  will  guide  and  direct  the  whole  operation,  helping  a  little 
here  and  there,  as  he  may  be  needed.  While  the  machine-tender  on  tour  is  shutting  down  and  getting 
off  the  old  wire,  and  taking  the  felt-rolls  out  of  the  way,  the  other  will  get  out  the  new  wire  to  a  safe 
and  convenient  place,  take  the  jacket  off  the  stretcher,  punch  the  holes  in  each  end,  and  run  the 
lacing-twine  through  them  ;  also  get  out  all  the  planks  and  tools  that  may  be  needed,  see  that  there  is 
a  supply  of  wiping-rags  convenient,  and  a  barrel  of  boiling  water  ready.  About  the  time  he  has 
attended  to  these  things,  the  machine  will  be  ready  for  operations.  All  four  hands  are  required  to 
take  off  the  top  couch-roll,  which  should  be  lowered  on  to  a  plank,  and  moved  along  the  frame,  close 
up  to  the  first  press-rolls ;  the  deckel-frame  is  next  taken  off  and  laid  out  of  the  way,  the  cutter  hands 
being  set  to  work  to  clean  it  thoroughly.  And  now,  while  one  machine-tender  is  putting  on  the 
jacket,  the  other  is  getting  out  the  tube-rolls,  suction-boxes,  and  save-all,  making  everything  clean  and 
tidy  as  he  goes,  and  laying  everything  away  carefully  and  conveniently,  so  that  there  will  be  no  delay 
when  he  comes  to  put  them  back  to  their  places.  Now  is  the  time  to  have  a  place  for  everything,  and 
to  have  everything  in  its  place.  To  put  a  jacket  on  the  couch-roll  is  now  a  very  simple  affair.  Scald- 
ing the  jacket  with  boiling  water  and  punching  it  on  with  sticks  is  now  numbered  among  the  things 
that  were ;  that  it  is  so,  all  machine-tenders  ought  to  feel  thankful  and  say  amen.  The  jacket  is  pre- 
viously stretched  on  a  frame  while  it  is  wet  with  boiling  water,  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  It  is 
now  one  and  a  half  inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the  couch-roll.  Any  time  after  it  is  thoroughly 
dried  it  may  be  taken  off  the  stretcher,  a  row  of  small  holes  punched  in  each  end,  and  lacing-twine 
run  through  them,  all  ready  to  draw  together  after  it  is  on  the  roll.  After  it  is  taken  off  the  stretcher 
it  must  be  kept  perfectly  dry ;  the  least  dampness  causing  it  to  shrink  back  to  its  original  size. 

"The  old  jacket  is  taken  off  and  the  roll  rinsed  clean  with  boiling  water,  the  ends  well  cleaned, 
and  rubbed  with  tallow.  I  use  boiling  water  to  rinse  the  roll  with,  because  it  heats  the  roll,  causing 
it  to  dry  quickly,  so  that  the  jacket  may  be  got  on  and  the  ends  fastened  before  it  gets  damp.  A  piece 
of  pipe  large  enough  to  fit  on  the  end  of  the  couch-roll  is  now  run  through  the  jacket  and  slipped  on 
to  the  end  of  the  roll ;  by  means  of  this  pipe  raise  the  roll,  draw  the  box  which  the  journal  of  the  roll 
runs  in  loose  aside,  cover  the  frame  with  a  rag  or  piece  of  felt,  then  draw  on  the  jacket,  push  back  the 
box  to  its  place,  and  lower  the  roll.  The  jacket  is  now  on  the  roll,  but  is  quite  loose ;  indeed,  you  may 
run  your  hand  between  it  and  the  roll.  The  ends  are  now  fastened  by  drawing  up  the  lacing-twine 
and  fastening  it  securely,  being  careful  to  divide  the  slack  of  the  jacket  uniformly  round  the  edge  of 
the  roll.  Now  drench  the  jacket  with  boiling  water  (see  remarks  in  Article  110. — The  Author),  and 
it  will  shrink  to  its  original  size,  or  as  near  to  it  as  the  roll  will  permit.  The  whole  is  but  a  few  min- 
utes' work,  and  the  roll  is  never  taken  out  of  its  place.  All  hands  will  now  turn  to  and  clean  up  the 
frame  and  floor,  and  get  out  the  breast-roll,  which,  when  done,  will  make  everything  ready  for  the  new 
wire.  The  pipe  already  used  for  the  jacket  is  run  through  the  loose  end  of  the  wire  and  slipped  on  to 
the  end  of  the  couch-roll  as  before,  the  couch-roll  raised  high  enough  to  admit  of  the  wire  being  carried 
right  along  over  the  roll ;  the  roll  is  then  lowered  to  its  place  and  the  wire  unrolled  to  its  full  length, 
the  breast-roll  got  in,  and  the  save-all  put  back  to  its  place. 

"The  hands  may  again  divide,  one  machine-tender  putting  in  the  tube-rolls,  the  other  the  suction- 
boxes,  and  getting  the  water-pipes  all  straight  again.  When  all  the  rolls  are  put  into  their  proper 
places,  the  stretch-roll  should  be  lowered  sufficiently  to  take  up  all  the  slack  of  the  wire,  and  set  per- 
fectly level.  The  wire  started  and  allowed  to  make  two  or  three  revolutions,  examine  it  carefully  to 
see  that  it  is  a  perfect  wire.  The  deckel-frame  and  breast-board  are  now  to  be  put  on,  then  the  top 
couch-roll,  which  ought  to  be  put  on  Avith  the  greatest  care.  The  men  doing  this  ought  to  make  a 
clean,  steady  lift,  and  be  careful  to  lower  all  together,  so  that  both  ends  of  the  roll  will  touch  the  wire 
at  the  same  instant. 

"It  only  remains  now  to  put  on  the  levers,  and  weights,  and  the  guard-board,  and  set  the  stretch- 
roll,  so  as  to  make  the  wire  firm  and  somewhat  tight.  The  machine-tender  on  tour  ought  now  to  be 
left  to  himself  to  examine  everything  carefully,  to  see  that  nothing  has  been  omitted  or  done  im- 
properly, then  let  him  start  the  wire,  and  run  it  a  few  minutes  to  make  sure  that  it  is  all  right.  Mean- 


1 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES.. 


145 


while  let  the  others  go  to  work  and  get  the  felt  rolls  back  to  their  places,  put  away  all  the  planks  and 
tools,  and  everything  that  has  been  used,  in  their  proper  places,  so  that  when  next  wanted  they  may 
know  just  where  to  find  them. 

"Now  by  following  some  such  system  as  this  a  wire  may  be  put  on  safely  and  expeditiously; 
there  need  be  no  hurrying,  yet  the  machine  may  be  shut  down,  the  wire  put  on,  and  the  machine 
started  inside  of  four  hours.  But  to  accomplish  this,  the  foreman,  or  other  capable  and  responsible 
person,  ought  to  be  present.  Besides  guiding  and  directing  everything,  he  can  do  much  to  clear  the 
way  for  the  machine-tenders,  by  making  sure  that  the  articles  needed  are  on  hand  just  at  the  right 
moment,  and  moved  out  of  the  way  when  used.  A  new  apron  may  be  wanted,  which  he  can  put  on, 
or  it  may  be  the  guard-board  wants  a  new  cover,  or  there  is  a  rusty  bolt  or  two  that  he  can  clean  and 
oil.  Indeed  a  capable  and  intelligent  man  will  find  his  hands  full  of  work  at  such  a  time,  helping 
when  he  can,  and  getting  out  of  the  way  when  he  is  not  needed.  As  far  as  it  is  possible  and  safe, 
machine-tenders  ought  to  be  allowed  to  do  things  in  their  own  way,  as  in  that  case  they  feel  themselves 
the  more  responsible  for  the  behavior  of  the  wire,  and  it  is  wise  to  have  them  both  express  themselves 
satisfied  that  it  is  all  right  when  started  ;  they  are  then  the  more  interested  in  doing  all  they  can  to 
keep  it  so." 

"  The  whole  wire  and  all  its  belongings  require  the  best  care  and  attention  that  a  machine-tender 
can  give ;  he  should  never  go  near  it  when  nervous  or  in  a  hurry ;  far  better  sit  down  and  wait  till  his 
hurry  is  over,  or  go  to  the  water-pail  and  hold  his  hands  in  cold  water,  and  dash  it  over  his  face  until 
he  is  cool  enough  to  know  what  he  is  doing.  The  careless  handling  of  a  wrench  or  a  brush,  or  a  hasty, 
careless  movement  of  the  hand  is  liable  to  do  it  an  irreparable  injury. 

"  There  is  nothing  more  characteristic  of  a  good,  careful  machine-tender  than  the  care  and  atten- 
tion which  he  bestows  upon  the  wire.  It  makes  no  difference  how  much  of  a  hurry  either  he  or  any- 
body else  is  in  ;  he  will  not  leave  it  on  shutting  down  his  machine  until  it  is  thoroughly  washed  off, 
nor  will  he  start  his  machine  until  he  is  satisfied  that  his  wire  is  all  right ;  he  will  take  particular 
pride  in  keeping  it  in  one  place,  not  moving  the  guide-roll  more  than  two  or  three  times  on  his  tour. 
A  machine-tender  careless  on  this  point  is  sure  to  be  in  trouble  all  the  time.  The  wire,  moving  rapidly 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  makes  the  edge  of  his  paper  rough,  causing  it  to  break  while  he  is  taking 
the  paper  over  the  machine.  He  has  to  run  back  in  a  great  hurry  and  move  the  guide-roll ;  ten  to 
one  he  moves  it  too  much  or  in  the  wrong  direction  ;  his  wire  is  soon  rubbing  on  the  frame,  or  it  is  so 
twisted  that  he  has  to  shut  down,  and  take  off  the  top  couch-roll  to  straighten  it." 

IV.  The  Presses. 

124.  Press-Rolls  and  Housings. — The  paper  after  it  has  left  the  wire  is  fully 
formed,  and  our  efforts  are  next  directed  to  free  it  from  water. 

The  process  of  making  paper  by  hand,  where  the  sheets  are  exposed  to  a  strong 
pressure,  while  lying  between  felts,  is  again  imitated. 

It  is  done  by  means  of  two  or  more  presses,  which  are  alike  in  principle. 

Fig.  2,  Plate  II,  gives  a  view  of  the  two  presses  from  the  front  side  of  the  ma- 
chine, and  is  a  continuation  of  the  part  represented  on  Plate  1. 

Fig.  1,  on  the  same  plate,  gives  a  view  of  the  second  press  on  which  the  manner 
of  moving  the  doctor  to  and  fro  upon  the  surface  of  the  roll,  and  the  management  of 
the  clutch  is  shown. 

The  first  or  wet  press  consists  of  a  pair  of  rolls  a  and  a',  of  not  less  than  12  to 
15  inches  diameter,  the  journals  of  which  rest  in  upright  cast-iron  stands  b  on  the 

19 


146 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


frames  c  of  the  machine.  The  lower  roll  a'  is  connected  by  a  coupling  with  a  driving- 
shaft  on  the  back  or  driving  side  of  the  machine,  and  receives  motion  directly,  while 
the  upper  one  is  turned  by  friction. 

Both  rolls  A  and  a'  are  of  cast  iron  and  mostly  hollow,  and  though  the  upper 
one  A  may  be  very  heavy,  its  weight  alone  is  hardly  sufficient  to  exercise  the  neces- 
sary pressure.  Sometimes  screws  similar  to  A'  are  brought  to  bear  directly  on  the 
journals  of  the  upper  roll.  The  pressure  may  thereby  be  considerably  increased;  but 
if  any  solid  substance  happens  to  get  between  the  rolls,  something  must  give  way 
and  break. 

If  levers  and  weights  are  used,  the  upper  roll  can  be  lifted  up  by  the  intruder, 
which  passes  through  without  breaking  any  part  of  the  machinery.  The  presses  in 
our  drawings  are  provided  with  double  leverage  like  the  couch-rolls.  The  screw  A", 
for  which  a  thread  is  tapped  into  the  cross-piece  d,  transmits  the  pressure  to  the  roll 
A  by  means  of  the  box  a",  to  which  it  is  fastened.  The  lower  half  of  the  journal  is 
encircled  by  an  iron  band,  which  is  bolted  to  the  box  a*,  and  compels  the  press-roll 
to  follow  the  movements  of  the  screw  a^. 

Instead  of  raising  the  roll  a  with  a  lever,  and  holding  it  in  that  position  in  the 
usual  rather  rude  manner,  by  putting  keys  or  blocks  of  wood  between  a  and  a'  when- 
ever a  felt  is  to  be  changed,  the  roll  a  is  simply  lifted  up  at  both  ends  by  a  few  turns 
of  the  hand- wheels  a^,  which  operate  the  screws. 

While  the  machine  is  running,  the  cap  or  cross-piece  d  is  not  allowed  to  rest  on 
or  touch  the  housings  b;  it  must  be  supported  by  the  screw  a^  alone,  and  carries  in  its 
turn  the  rods  d' d'  at  its  ends.  These  rods  are  joined  together  below  the  stands  b  in 
a  casting  d^,  which  is  bolted  to  the  lever  j)^  near  its  resting-point  d\  The  second 
lever  rests  and  turns  in  d',  is  connected  with  the  first  one  by  a  pin  d*,  and  carries 
the  movable  weight  d',  by  which  the  pressure  on  the  roll  a  can  be  increased  or  de- 
creased. 

An  improved  press-roll  housing  has  been  lately  introduced,  and  is  represented 
by  Fig.  3,  Plate  II. 

The  screw  a^  and  hand-wheel  a^  correspond  with  those  in  our  Fig.  2,  but  instead 
of  being  keyed  together,  the  hub  of  the  wheel  a^  is  tapped  out,  and  the  screw  fits 
loosely  in  it.  The  eyes  of  the  bolts  d',  which  connect  with  the  yoke  d^,  are  only 
hooked  into  the  short  link  y,  which  is  in  the  same  manner  suspended  in  the  eyes  z  z. 
Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  press-rollSj  the  weights  and  levers  are  lifted  up 
by  hand,  y  unhooked,  and  the  bolt  a'^  screwed  up  by  the  hand-wheel  a^.  This  hand- 
wheel  is  not  permitted  to  rest  on  the  housing  while  the  rolls  are  at  work,  as  the 
weights  and  levers  would  not  be  able  to  exercise  any  influence. 

The  principal  improvement  on  the  former  construction  consists,  however,  in  the 
open  or  broken  form  of  one  side  of  the  housing,  through  which  the  felts  can  be  taken 
off  and  put  on  more  conveniently  than  if  it  were  closed  on  both  sides. 

Of  whatever  size  or  material  the  rolls  may  be,  they  must  be  made  of  greater 
diameter  in  the  centre  than  at  the  ends,  in  order  to  press  equally  at  all  points.  If 


X 


PAPER -MACHINES.  147 

made  perfectly  straight  or  of  uniform  diameter,  they  will  spring  open  in  the.  middle 
and  form  a  hollow  place. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  two  rolls  should  touch  each  other  in 
a  straight  line  through  their  entire  length  when  the  proper  amount  of  pressure  is 
put  upon  them,  because  the  paper  cannot  lose  as  much  water  in  a  hollow  place  as  in 
the  other  j^arts,  therefore  remains  wet,  is  consequently  weaker  in  that  particular  spot, 
and  breaks  on  its  subsequent  journey  towards  the  reel,  A  certain  quantity  of  water 
is  evaporated  from  every  part  of  the  paper  on  the  dryers ;  the  spot  which  has  not 
been  sufficiently  pressed,  and  contains  the  most  water,  wall  therefore  remain  moist 
when  the  balance  of  the  web  is  dry. 

If  passed  to  the  calenders  in  this  state  the  moist  spot  would  stick  to  the  rolls 
and  probably  be  torn  out ;  it  is  therefore  natural  for  the  machine-tender  to  admit  more 
steam,  and  heat  the  paper  until  the  moist  spot  disappears.  The  rest  of  the  web,  which 
does  not  require  so  high  a  temperature,  is  injured  by  being  overheated,  becomes  brittle, 
and  breaks  frequently  on  the  calenders. 

When  wet  spots  are  seen  in  the  paper  the  machine-tender  should  at  once  deter- 
mine the  cause  and  remove  it.  It  may  be  that  the  guard-board  does  not  fit  close  on 
the  coucher,  or  that  the  coucher  or  one  of  the  presses  is  weighted  down  too  much  or 
too  little,  that  one  of  the  felts  is  worn  out  or  dirty,  or  that  the  dryer-felt  is  not  in 
good  order,  &c. 

The  couch  and  press-rolls  are,  as  before  said,  usually  made  a  trifle  full — some- 
times g\  to  inch  thicker  in  the  middle  than  on  the  ends — and  then  require  a 
pressure  which  is  at  all  times  strong  enough  to  bend  them  into  straight  lines,  and 
frequently  stronger  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

The  weight,  which  must  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  presses,  depends  not  only  on 
the  quality  and  thickness  of  the  paper,  on  the  dilution  of  the  pulp,  and  its  treatment 
on  the  wire,  but  especially  on  the  condition  of  the  felts.  While  the  felt  is  new  and 
clean  the  water  can  pass  through  it  easily,  but  a  strong  pressure  is  required  after  the 
pores  have  become  partially  filled  up. 

It  is  very  difiicult  to  construct  press-rolls,  especially  for  wide  machines,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  too  heavy,  and  yet  sustain  a  strong  pressure  without  bending.  Their 
diameters,  however,  should  always  be  large,  and  in  proportion  with  the  width  of  the 
machine. 

Planche  advocates  the  use  of  three  presses  instead  of  two.  Each  one  of  them 
would  probably  require  less  pressure ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  that  advantage  would  not 
be  offset  by  the  increased  difficulty  of  management,  caused  by  an  addition  to  our 
already  complicated  machines. 

Imperfect  or  worn-out  press-rolls  are  often  made  to  fit  one  another  by  grinding 
them  with  flour  of  emery  while  they  are  running  in  their  housings  on  the  machine. 
They  can  be  made  to  touch  in  all  their  length  by  this  operation,  but  not  true  or 
straight,  as  the  harder  surface  of  one  roll  will  rub  into  the  opposite  softer  surface  of 
the  other  one.    It  is  also  impossible  to  make  them  full  in  the  middle  by  this  method. 


148 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


125.  Brass  and  Rubber-Cased  Press-Rolls. — The  surface  of  an  iron  roll  will  rust 
when  not  in  use ;  the  rust  is  transferred  to  the  felt  as  soon  as  the  rolls  start,  and  from 
it  to  the  paper.  The  surface  of  the  roll  may  be  entirely  smooth  when  new,  but  the 
rust  will  soon  make  it  rough. 

To  avoid  this  and  to  secure  a  permanently  bright  and  close-grained  surface,  the 
iron  rolls  are  frequently  covered  with  a  brass  casing  about  |  inch  thick.  Unless  this 
brass  cover  is  fitted  very  tight  to  the  iron  it  may  become  loose  in  the  course  of  time, 
and  give  much  trouble.  It  is  therefore  bored  out  a  little  smaller  than  the  diameter 
of  the  iron  roll,  made  to  expand  by  being  well  heated,  and  then  forced,  while  thus 
expanded,  over  the  roll  by  means  of  screw  or  hydraulic  presses. 

Press-rolls  cased  or  covered  with  hard  rubber  of  a  brilliant,  glassy-black  appear- 
ance have  lately  been  used  and  recommended  on  the  plea  that  by  their  elasticity  the 
natural  elasticity  of  the  fibrous  web  will  be  preserved,  while  it  will  be  crushed  and 
killed  between  unyielding  metals.  They  are  prepared  by  giving  to  the  iron  roll  first 
a  coating  of  vulcanized  rubber,  hardened  so  that  it  will  stick  well  to  the  iron,  and 
then  a  second  outer  cover  of  the  same  material  not  so  highly  cured,  and  therefore  of 
a  softer  and  more  elastic  character.  If  well  made,  these  rubber  coats  have  certainly 
good  qualities  and  give  satisfaction.  They  present  a  very  smooth  surface,  and  are 
largely  used  on  lower  press-rolls,  where  they  are  protected  by  a  felt,  and  neither 
exposed  to  the  action  of  a  doctor  nor  liable  to  be  injured  or  scratched  by  impurities  in 
the  paper. 

126.  Doctors. — The  upper  press-roll  is  always  supplied  with  a  doctor,  which 
prevents  parts  of  the  paper  or  the  whole  sheet,  when  broken,  from  going  all  around 
and  thickening  on  the  roll,  or,  in  other  words,  it  keeps  it  permanently  clean. 

These  doctors  consist  of  a  cast-iron  body  e',  somewhat  longer  than  the  roll,  with 
journals  on  the  ends,  which  rest  in  bearings  e  bolted  to  the  stands  b. 

A  thin  steel,  brass,  or  hard-rubber  plate  is  secured  on  the  body  e'  all  along, 
resting  on  the  roll  and  scraping  it.  The  levers  e^  fastened  on  the  journals  of  e'  carry 
weights  e^  on  their  ends,  and  increase  the  pressure  of  the  doctor-blades  against  the 
roll.  Hard-rubber  blades  are  stiff  and  hard  enough  for  the  purpose,  while  they  do 
not  cut  the  roll  as  much  as  metal. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  doctor-blades,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  same 
position  all  the  time,  will  cause  the  roll  to  wear  unevenly  into  hills  and  hollows,  and 
to  obviate  this  a  slow  vibrating  motion  is  given  to  them.  They  are  driven  to  and  fro 
upon  the  surface  of  the  roll  by  means  of  attachments  as  represented  on  Plate  II,  or 
some  similar  mechanism. 

The  lever  f  in  Fig.  1 — swinging  upon  the  pivot-bolt  f' — is  connected  at  its 
upper  end  with  the  doctor-frame,  as  shown,  and  its  lower  end  has  a  point  projecting 
into  a  spiral  groove  f^  in  the  clutch  of  the  lower  roll.  As  the  roll  revolves,  the 
vibrating  motion  is  given  by  the  clutch  to  the  lever,  which  imparts  it  to  the  doctor. 

This  rocking  motion  of  only  I  to  |  inch  on  the  upper  roll,  together  with  the  use 
of  a  hard-rubber  blade,  will  keep  the  roll  clean  and  the  surface  true. 


/ 


PAPER -MACHINES.  149 

127.  Disposition  of  the  Felts. — The  paper  is  led  through  the  first  press  in  the 
same  direction  in  which  it  moves  on  the  wire,  as  indicated  by  arrows  (Fig.  2).  The 
felt  G  on  which  it  is  carried  is  marked  with  dotted  lines  and  the  paper  with  full  lines. 

The  upper  press-roll  makes  the  side  of  the  paper  with  which  it  is  in  direct  con- 
tact more  compact  and  smooth  than  the  lower  side,  which  rests  on  the  felt ;  and  in 
order  to  obtain  a  similar  surface  on  both  sides,  it  must  be  reversed  in  the  second 
press ;  the  side  which  was  in  contact  with  the  felt  in  the  first  jDress  must  be  brought 
in  contact  with  the  metal  surface  of  the  roll  in  the  second  press. 

For  this  purpose  the  wet-felt  g  carries  the  paper  underneath  the  second  press  and 
several  feet  beyond  it  to  a  point  where  it  is  taken  off  by  hand,  led  over  the  two 
paper-rolls  i  i,  and  laid  on  the  second  felt  g'.  This  second  or  j)ress-felt  g',  moving  in 
a  directioil  opposite  to  that  of  the  pulp  on  the  wire,  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  carries 
the  paper  backward  through  the  second  press.  It  will  adhere  to  the  upper  press-roll 
and  turn  with  it  upwards  to  a  point  where  it  is  taken  off  again,  and  led  over  another 
paper-roll,  located  above  the  press-rolls,  to  the  drying  cylinders. 

The  two  presses  proper  are  nearly  identical  in  construction,  and  their  component 
parts  are  therefore  designated  by  the  same  letters  in  both. 

128.  Felt  and  Paper  Carrying-Rolls. — Two  distinct  sets  of  rolls  h  and  i  carry  the 
felts  and  paper  respectively.  Wood  is  the  cheapest  material  of  which  they  can  be 
made ;  but,  as  they  are  exposed  to  constant  changes  of  wet  and  dry,  even  those  made  of 
best-seasoned  timber  will  lose  their  form  and  become  warped  and  untrue.  A  roll  which 
is  not  true  is  apt  to  do  a  great  deal  of  damage  by  wrinkling  the  felt,  or  by  causing 
the  paper  which  it  carries,  to  break.  It  is  advisable  to  construct  the  rolls  of  materials 
which  are  less  subject  to  the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  and  will  preserve  them 
straight  and  circular. 

The  felt-rolls  h  are  sometimes  subjected  to  a  very  heavy  strain  by  tightly- 
stretched  felts,  while  the  paper-rolls  i  have  but  little  strain  upon  them. 

The  wider  the  machine  is,  or  the  longer  the  rolls  are,  the  easier  will  they  be 
bent ;  and  their  diameter  should  therefore  increase  with  the  width  of  the  machine. 

Wrought-iron  tubes  or  pipes  of  from  4  to  6  inches  diameter,  with  cast-iron  heads 
well  fastened  in,  will  make  very  substantial  felt-rolls ;  while  copper  or  brass  rolls  of 
similar  size  are  more  suitable  to  carry  the  paper,  as  they  run  easily  and  can  be  made 
light,  while  they  offer  a  smooth  surface  to  the  web,  and  will  not  rust. 

When  a  felt  is  to  be  changed,  the  upper  roll  a  is  raised  several  inches  by 
means  of  the  hand-wheel  a'^,  the  front-side  journal  of  the  lower  roll  a^  is  then  lifted 
from  its  bearing  by  means  of  a  lever  or  jack-screw,  the  old  felt  is  drawn  out  over  the 
roll  A^  between  its  front  journal  and  bearing,  and  the  new  one  is  passed  in  through 
the  same  narrow  opening.  This  can  however  not  be  done  before  all  those  carrying- 
rolls  H,  which  are  situated  inside  of  the  felt,  are  removed.  The  journals  of  all  these 
rolls  rest  in  cast-iron  brackets  with  half-open  bearings  bolted  to  the  frames,  from 
which  the  rolls  can  be  quickly  removed  without  any  previous  unfastening  of  bolts  or 
boxes. 


150 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY-  MACHINERY. 


129.  Wet  and  Press-Felts. — All  the  water  which,  is  pressed  out  of  the  paper  must 
pass  through  the  felts,  and,  as  the  first  jjress  necessarily  takes  out  a  great  deal  more 
than  the  second  press,  the  wet-felt  must  permit  the  passage  of  a  larger  quantity  of 
water  than  the  press-felt.  The  wet-felts  are  therefore  of  a  light  and  open  web,  while 
the  press-felts  are  thicker  and  heavier. 

The  standard  length  of  wet-felts  in  the  United  States  is  24  feet,  and  of  press- 
felts  12  feet;  the  dealers  are  always  supplied  with  felts  of  these  lengths,  and  it  is 
therefore  advisable  to  build  the  machines  so  that  they  will  fit. 

Three  qualities  of  felts  are  manufactured  and  used  for  corresponding  grades  of 
paper, — the  superfine,  fine,  and  common  felts.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  only  a  few 
makers  are  able  to  produce  a  superior  article  of  these  felts ;  their  values  and  prices 
vary  therefore  considerably  according  to  their  origin. 

It  is  well  known  that  every  kind  of  woollen  cloth,  especially  felts,  shrink  consider- 
ably when  wet,  the  lower  grades  more  so  than  the  finer  ones.  They  should  therefore 
be  always  made  from  6  to  8  inches  wider  than  the  press-rolls,  and  the  frames  should 
be  far  enough  apart,  and  the  felt-rolls  h  long  enough,  to  give  them  plenty  of  room 
to  spread. 

130.  Spread-  and  Stretch-Rolls. — To  counteract  the  tendency  to  contract  or  shrink, 
one  or  more  of  the  felt-rolls  are  covered  with  spirals  or  worms.  These  worms  are  made 
of  two  strips  of  heavy  felting,  about  1  to  1  i  inches  wide,  starting  from  a  point  in  the 
middle  of  the  roll,  where  they  are  fastened,  and  winding  in  sj^iral  or  screw  lines 
around  it,  leaving  at  least  two  inches  distance  between  the  turns  of  the  strips,  until 
they  reach  the  ends,  where  they  are  fastened  again.  To  hold  these  strips  on  iron- 
rolls,  they  are  sewed  together  in  the  middle,  from  where  they  start,  and  tied  to  the 
roll  there  and  at  the  ends  with  strings. 

These  strips  of  felt  thus  form  right  and  left-handed  screws  on  the  roll ;  the 
stretched  felt,  fitting  closely  on  them,  is  spread  out  to  both  sides  by  the  revolving- 
roll,  and  kept  from  shrinking  too  much. 

This  system  has  entirely  superseded  the  leather  bands,  which  were  formerly 
sewed  to  both  edges  of  a  felt,  and  held  in  their  positions  by  a  series  of  brass  rolls,  fast- 
ened to  the  frames. 

Each  felt  is  provided  with  one  or  two  guide-rolls  h',  by  means  of  which  it  is 
kept  in  its  place.  If,  for  instance,  a  felt  moves  to  the  front  side  of  the  machine,  the 
machine-tender  advances  the  journal  of  the  guide-roll  on  that  side  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  felt  runs  over  it,  until  it  goes  back.  If  the  felt  shifts  to  the  back  side,  the 
guide-roll  journal  on  the  front  side  is  screwed  back  against  its  line  of  travel,  until  it 
remains  permanently  in  the  middle. 

The  constant  wear  and  tear  weakens  and  elongates  the  felts,  and  it  becomes  often 
necessary  to  preserve  their  stiffness  by  stretching.  The  bearings  of  one  of  the  rolls 
H,  at  a  point  where  the  felt  takes  a  sharp  turn  over  it,  are  carried  on  identical  screws 
H*  at  each  end.  Both  screws  h*  are  moved  by  bevel  wheels  h^,  connected  by  a  shaft 
across  the  machine,  which  is  turned  by  the  hand-wheel      on  the  front  side.  The 


PAPER  •  MA  CHINES. 


151 


length  of  the  felts  can  thus  be  increased  by  twice  the  length  of  the  screws  h*.  The 
wet-felt  being  the  longer,  most  exposed,  and  weaker  web,  should  have  plenty  of 
stretch-room,  or  its  screws      should  be  as  long  as  possible. 

131.  Felt-Washers. — The  stuff,  especially  if  short,  well  loaded  with  clay,  or  heavily- 
sized,  will  soon  fill  up  the  pores  of  the  felts,  so  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of  water 
through  them.  To  wash  the  wet-felt,  a  shower-pipe  k  is  placed  over  it  on  the  return 
trip,  and  immediately  after  having  been  soaked  with  water,  it  receives  the  friction  or 
beating  of  two  w^ooden  wings  l,  fastened  on  a  horizontal  shaft  below  the  felt,  which 
is  revolved  with  high  speed  by  a  small  pulley  on  its  back  end.  This  washing  ope- 
ration, though  it  takes  only  a  few  minutes,  necessitates  stoppage  of  the  machine,  and 
various  attempts  liave  been  made  to  have  the  felt  washed  all  the  time  while  it  is 
running. 

Whenever  a  felt  begins  to  become  filled  up  in  some  place,  the  paper  is  necessarily 
affected  by  it,  and  sometimes  may  be  marked  for  some  time  before  the  machine  is 
stopped  and  the  felt  washed.  The  water  which  cannot  escape  through  that  part  of 
the  felt  remains  in  the  paper,  makes  it  weaker,  and  at  last  causes  it  to  break.  This 
is  an  additional  reason  why  a  system  of  permanent  washing  would  be  preferable. 

We  understand  that  an  arrangement  has  been  successful  in  France,  by  which 
the  wet-felt  on  its  return  trip  is  first  soaked  by  two-  shower-pipes,  one  above  and  one 
below,  and  directly  afterwards  freed  from  its  surplus  water  between  a  pair  of  small 
press-rolls. 

The  second,  or  press-felt,  does  not  r.equire  to  be  washed  so  frequently  as  the  wet- 
felt,  and  nothing  is  therefore  provided  for  this  purpose.  It  is  simply  soaked  with 
water,  and  receives  a  beating  with  sticks,  in  the  hands  of  the  machine-tender. 

By  this  rough  proceeding  it  is  frequently  ruined,  and  many  paper-makers  prefer 
therefore  to  change  the  press-felt  whenever  it  becomes  stiff  or  filled  up,  and  to  clean 
it  outside  of  the  machine  in  a  felt-washer.  In  one  large  mill  it  is  a  rule  to  change  the 
press-felts  every  morning. 

Such  separate  felt-washers  may  be  constructed  of  two  wooden  rolls,  about  3  feet 
or  more  long,  which  rest  in  bearings  on  the  sides  of  a  box  or  trough.  The  ends  of 
the  lower  roll  should  be  provided  with  flanges  or  heads  of  a  larger  diameter,  to 
prevent  the  felts  from  slipping  out  at  the  sides.  The  box  is  filled  with  water  heated 
by  steam,  while  the  lower  roll  is  revolved  by  a  pulley  and  belt  outside,  and  thus  turns 
the  felt  which  has  been  slipped  over  it. 

The  felt  becomes  soaked  with  water  while  it  passes  through  the  box,  and  is  again 
dej^rived  of  its  surplus  by  the  pressure  of  the  upper  roll,  which  acts  as  a  wringer. 

Both  wet  and  press-felts  can  be  much  better  washed  and  rejuvenated,  with  boiling 
water  and  soap  in  this  way,  than  on  the  machine. 

132.  Troughs  below  the  Presses. — The  water  which  is  pressed  out  of  the  paper 
flows  over  the  surface  of  the  lower  roll  a',  and  drops  into  the  trough  m,  supported  by 
the  brackets  or  strips  n  n.  This  is  in  most  cases  a  shallow  and  pretty  heavy  wooden 
box ;  but,  as  it  must  be  removed  whenever  a  felt  is  changed,  it  should  be  made  of 


152  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 

some  lighter  material.  A  sheet  of  galvanized  iron,  bent  in  a  circle  of  about  6  inches 
more  diameter  than  the  roll  a',  and  nailed  on  wooden  segments  which  form  the  ends, 
will  be  found  to  be  cheap,  light,  and  convenient.  This  trough  must  be  several  inches 
wider  than  the  roll,  in  order  to  catch  all  the  water,  and  the  joint  by  which  a  lead  or 
rubber  pipe  is  attached  to  the  outlet  m'  must  be  made  with  great  care,  to  prevent  any 
drops  of  water  from  leaking  through.  We  have  seen  paper  breaking  for  hours, 
until  the  cause  was  found  to  be  drops  of  water,  which  escaped  through  the  joint  m', 
and  made  wet  spots  on  the  felt  below  and  consequently  on  the  paper.  A  short  metal 
pipe  riveted  to  the  outlet  m',  near  enough  to  the  frame  to  be  reached  by  the  machine- 
tender,  with  a  rubber  pipe  slipped  over  it,  forms  a  safe  connection. 

133.  Air-Roll. — Sometimes  there  is  air  between  the  paper  and  the  felt  g,  which, 
as  it  cannot  pass  through  the  press,  forms  bubbles  right  before  the  rolls  and  bulges 
the  paper  out.  To  prevent  this,  a  copper  tube-roll  o  rests  on  the  paper,  and,  pressing 
it  by  its  weight,  makes  it  impossible  for  the  air  to  advance  any  farther. 

134.  Clutch. — Each  press  should  be  supplied  with  a  clutch  and  lever,  by  which 
it  can  be  either  stopped  or  started  at  will.  When,  for  example,  one  of  the  felts  is  to 
be  washed,  the  press  must  run  while  the  rest  of  the  machine  may  stand  still.  The 
levers  should  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  machine-tender  on  the  front  side  of  the 
machine.  The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  1,  Plate  II,  is  the  same  as  that  used  for 
the  wire  and  every  other  part  of  the  machine  represented  on  the  plates. 

The  forked  upper  part  of  the  lever  r  holds  the  movable  part  p  of  the  clutch 
embraced;  it  pivots  on  the  bearing  s,  which  projects  from  the  stand  t,  and  its  forked 
lower  end  is  connected  by  a  bolt  with  the  flat  iron  bar  r'.  This  bar  r'  extends  to  the 
front  side  of  the  machine,  where  it  connects  with  the  lever  v,  which  has  its  turning- 
point  in  the  bolt  v'  of  the  stand  u.  The  hook  or  dog  w,  which  is  attached  to  the 
lever  v,  rests  with  its  lower  sharp  end  in  corners  of  the  same  form,  which  make  part 
of  the  stand  u,  preventing  the  lever  v  from  falling  back,  and  the  movable  part  p  of 
the  clutch  from  drawing  out  of  the  stationary  part.  Whenever  the  press  is  to 
stand  still,  the  dog  w  must  be  raised  out  of  its  position,  before  the  lever  v  can  be 
pulled  back.  If  all  the  parts  of  this  mechanism  are  strongly  built,  and  the  stands  u 
and  T  well  fastened  on  immovable  foundations,  it  works  well  and  is  convenient. 

135.  Management  of  Felts. — It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  felt-rolls,  as 
well  as  all  other  rolls,  should  be  level,  square,  and  parallel  with  each  other.  If  only 
one  of  them  is  out  of  line,  the  felt  may  become  wrinkled,  and,  passing  through  the 
press  in  that  way,  will  be  cut  and  ruined. 

The  rolls  h  must  be  placed  in  such  positions  that  the  felts  make  no  un- 
necessary bends,  and  pass  through  the  presses  in  as  straight  lines  as  j)ossible,  be- 
cause every  deviation  from  the  straight  course  oflfers  an  additional  opportunity  for 
them  to  become  twisted  or  wrinkled. 

Felts,  even  if  well  taken  care  of,  gradually  wear  out,  and  must  be  replaced  by 
new  ones ;  but  careless  or  inexperienced  machine-tenders  ruin  many,  by  allowing 


PAPER  -MA  CHINES. 


153 


them  to  become  cut  in  the  presses.  If  stabbed  in  that  way,  they  can  often  be  mended 
by  sewing  up  the  wound ;  but  sometimes  they  are  beyond  cure. 

A  straight  colored  line  is  drawn  square  across  every  endless  woollen  felt  by  the 
maker.  As  long  as  this  line  is  seen  parallel  with  the  rolls,  the  felt  is  running  cor- 
rectly ;  but  as  soon  as  one  part  of  it  runs  ahead  or  lags  behind,  it  is  an  evidence  that 
one  or  more  of  the  rolls  are  not  set  perfectly  square  and  parallel,  and  the  fault  must 
be  corrected  by  the  guide- roll,  until  the  colored  line  is  straight  again. 

136.  Taking  the  Paper  through  the  Presses. — The  paper  is  taken  from  the  wire 
by  hand,  and  laid  on  the  wet  felt,  the  first  carrying-roll  of  which  should  be  as  near 
to  the  lower  coucher  as  it  can  be  placed,  without  obstructing  the  passage  of  paper 
and  sometimes  of  thick  jjulp  to  the  box  underneath — not  over  2  inches  distant.  It 
is,  again  by  hand,  taken  from  the  wet  felt  to  the  press-felt,  and  from  the  upper  roll 
of  the  second  press  to  the  dryers,  as  already  described. 

A  narrow  passage  for  the  convenience  of  the  machine-tender  is  usually  left 
between  the  second  press  and  the  dryers,  and  a  plank  x,  resting  on  the  frames  and 
bridging  the  felt  and  paper  between  the  first  press  and  the  stretch-roll  of  the  press- 
felt,  provides  another  passage  to  the  driving  side. 

V.  Dryers. 

137.  Construction  of  Drjdng- Cylinders. — The  first  drying-cylinders  were  made  of 
copper,  but  they  have  been  almost  altogether  superseded  by  cast-iron  ones,  as  the  latter 
are  less  expensive,  less  liable  to  have  their  surfaces  damaged,  and  will  not  change  tem- 
perature as  quickly  as  copper  ones.  In  cases  where  iron  dryers  cannot  be  used,  the 
brass  or  cojjper  shell  should  be  very  heavy,  in  order  to  combine  as  fully  as  possible 
the  advantages  of  both. 

It  is  not  only  necessary  that  the  surface  of  a  dryer  should  be  a  perfect  cylinder, 
but  also  that  the  body  should  be  thoroughly  balanced.  It  may  be  supposed  that 
these  cylinders,  being  held  and  driven  by  cog-wheels,  will  be  forced  to  run  steadily 
whether  they  are  balanced  or  not ;  but  it  can  easily  be  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case. 
We  shall  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  cylinder  has  a  heavy  side  or  point,  that  it  is 
in  motion,  and  that  the  heavy  side  occupies  just  now  the  lowest  possible  position.  On 
its  way  up  from  there,  the  cogs  of  its  driving-wheel  m  [Fig.  1,  Plate  III]  are  pushed 
forward  by  the  cogs  of  the  next  connecting-wheel  m',  which  thus  sustain  the  extra 
weight,  and  move  the  cylinder  as  if  it  were  well  balanced ;  but  on  the  way  down, 
during  the  second  half  of  the  revolution,  the  heavy  side  will  run  ahead  of  the  push- 
ing cogs  of  the  neighboring  wheel  m'  as  far  as  the  play  between  the  driving  and 
driven  cogs  permits.  If  the  intermediate  wheel  m'  between  the  second  and  third  cyl- 
inders is  driven  by  the  main  gearing  through  a  pinion,  and  if  the  dryer  of  our  ex- 
ample is  the  last  or  fourth  one,  the  motion  is  transmitted  to  it  through  five  spur- 
wheels  or  four  movements  of  cogs  in  one  another.  Each  of  the  driven  cogs  must 
have  some  play  between  the  driving  ones,  and  if  this  is  j'g  inch,  the  heavy  side  may 

20 


154 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


avail  itself  of  all  these  spaces  or  of  =  \  inch,  until  the  accelerated  motion  thus 
produced  is  arrested  by  the  cogs  of  the  wheel  or  pinion  on  the  main  driving-shaft. 
Or,  in  other  words,  on  the  downward  movement  of  the  heavy  side  of  the  unbal- 
anced dryer,  the  cogs  of  its  driving-wheel,  which  have  been  resting  on  the  driving- 
cogs  of  the  next  connecting-wheel,  separate  from  them  and  advance  downwards  as  far 
as  they  can,  very  rapidly ;  the  paper  on  the  cylinder  partakes  of  this  movement,  and 
if  suddenly  pulled  forward  \  inch,  it  must  break,  unless  it  has  enough  elasticity  to 
stretch  itself  to  that  extent,  or  sufficient  strength  to  hold  the  faulty  cylinder  and  pre- 
vent it  from  following  the  command  of  its  heavy  side. 

The  shells  of  dryers  should  be  of  uniform  thickness,  and  therefore  cast  in  loam, 
and  it  is  for  the  same  reason  advisable  to  turn  them  inside  as  well  as  outside.  The 
sand-holes,  which  are  frequently  seen  on  the  surfaces  of  dryers  cast  in  sand,  not  only 
make  them  rough,  but,  being  often  invisible,  they  open  out  only  after  they  have  been 
some  time  in  operation,  and  must  be  plugged  to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam. 

138.  Admission  and  Escape  of  Steam. — The  machine,  parts-  of  which  are  repre- 
siented  on  the  previous  Plates  I  and  II,  has  seven  drying-cylinders,  constructed  like 
A,      and  A^  of  the  following  Plate  III : 

Fig.  1,  Plate  III,  is  a  plan  of  four  cylinders,  two  of  which  a^  and  a^  are  shown 
as  sections. 

Fig.  2,  Plate  III,  is  an  elevation  of  the  same  cylinders  from  the  front  side,  in 
which  the  two  a^  and  a^  are  shown  partly  as  sections. 

Fig.  3,  Plate  III,  is  a  side  view  of  the  automatic  felt-guide,  alongside  of  which 
it  is  drawn; 

The  steam  enters  the  dryers  through  the  main  pipe  b,  the  branch  pipes  c,  and 
valves  D.  These  valves  d  have  a  flange  d',  which  fits  on  the  hollow  journal  e',  and  a 
packing  (usually  an  iron  ring  covered  with  cotton  thread  or  lamp-wick)  is  placed 
between  the  two.  By  tightening  the  nuts  of  the  bolts  d^,  which  connect  the  station- 
ary bearing  of  the  cylinder  with  the  flanges  of  the  valve  d,  the  packing-ring  is 
pressed  until  it  prevents  the  escape  of  the  steam. 

If  the  water — the  product  of  condensed  steam — should  be  allowed  to  collect  in 
the  cylinders,  it  would  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  shell  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
dryers.  It  must  therefore  be  promptly  removed ;  and  this  is  done  either  by  scoops 
or  pipes,  through  the  arrangements  represented  in  the  sections  of  a^  and  a^ 
respectively. 

The  scoop  is  a  cast-iron  dipper  f  fastened  to  the  back-side  head  with  two  bolts  g, 
taking  up  the  water  with  the  opening  or  bucket  f',  and  emptying  it  through  the 
channel  f^,  which  forms  part  of  it,  and  through  the  connecting-pipe  f^.  This  pipe  f'^ 
enters  only  a  short  distance  into  the  journal,  but,  being  packed  tight  all  around  with 
ordinary  hemp  or  cotton  packing,  the  water  is  effectually  prevented  from  flowing 
back  into  the  dryer. 

The  opening  for  discharge  is  constructed  like  that  of  admittance,  but  it  has  no 
valve,  and  the  packing  is  pressed  by  the  screw  h'  threaded  in  the  arched  iron 
brace  h. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


155 


The  steam  in  the  cylinder  is  perfectly  free  to  depart  through  the  scoop,  to  mix 
with  the  steam  from  the  other  dryers  and  escape  through  the  waste-pipe.  This 
waste-pipe  i  is  often  so  arranged  that  the  condensed  water  may  flow  through  it  with- 
out obstruction,  and  it  then  becomes  a  means  of  comnmnication  between  all  the  cylin- 
ders, through  which  the  pressure  inside  of  all  of  them  is  kept  nearly  alike  and  inde- 
pendent of  the  openings  of  the  valves  d.  The  free  communication  of  the  pipe  i  with 
the  outside  air  causes  the  steam  to  escape  without  having  been  fully  utilized,  and 
must  result  in  a  large  waste  of  fuel.  Live  steam  of  high  pressure  will  rush  through 
faster  and  lose  more  than  that  which  has  previously  been  used  and  expanded  in  an 
engine.  But  it  will  be  beneficial  in  either  case  if  an  obstruction  to  its  free  discharge 
through  the  outlet-pipe  from  the  dryers  is  created  by  conducting  the  escape-pipe, 
which  connects  with  i,  so  that  it  rises  up  again  several  inches  above  i  in  some  point, 
and  thus  causes  the  water  to  accumulate  in  i  and  its  upright  branches  to  the  same 
height.  The  cylinders  will  be  separated  from  each  other  and  from  the  air  by  this 
water,  and  the  steam  will  be  better  utilized  and  condensed  before  departing. 

The  cylinder  a'  is  provided  with  an  upright  immovable  escape-pipe  k,  extending 
to  within  about  1  inch  of  the  shell,  which,  not  being  connected  or  turning  Avith  the 
cylinder,  does  not  disturb  the  balance.  It  communicates  through  an  elbow  and  a  hori- 
zontal pipe  with  the  stuffing-box  k"  ;  and  the  threads  of  all  these  connections  must 
be  cut  so  that  they  would  only  be  screwed  tighter  if  the  cylinder  a'  should  hapjien  to 
carry  the  pipe  k  around  with  it. 

If  these  escape-pipes  are  used  in  the  place  of  scoops,  the  cylinders  should  be 
somewhat  differently  constructed  from  those  shown  on  Plate  III.  The  pipe  should 
be  as  short  as  possible,  and  the  stuffing-box  k"  should  extend  further  in,  while  the 
head  of  the  cylinder  may  be  flat  instead  of  arched.  A  hand-hole  l  in  the  head  per- 
mits the  introduction  and  adjustment  of  the  pipe  k. 

The  condensed  water  accumulates  in  the  cylinder  until  it  reaches  the  lower  end 
of  the  pipe  k,  when  it  will  be  forced  through  by  the  steam-pressure  into  the  waste- 
pipe  I ;  it  is  thus  constantly  kept  up  to  the  inlet  of  the  pipe  K,  but  not  higher,  form- 
ing a  gate,  which  prevents  free  communication  between  the  different  dryers  and  the 
waste-pipe  i. 

The  hot  water  escaping  from  the  dryers  should  never  be  wasted,  but  gathered, 
where  it  can  be  used  for  feeding  the  boilers  or  some  other  purpose. 

139.  Process  of  Drying. — The  process  of  making  paper  by  hand  is  closely  im- 
itated by  the  machine  up  to  the  dryers.  Hand-made  paper  is,  however,  not  dried 
artificially,  but  simply  exposed  to  the  air,  and  contracts  to  j%  or  even  |  of  its  size 
during  that  operation.  The  fibres  join  each  other  closely  in  all  directions,  and  pro- 
duce a  firm  and  tough  sheet. 

On  the  machine  the  paper  can.  only  shrink  very  little  in  the  direction  in  which 
it  runs,  because  it  is  constantly  drawn  out  and  stretched.  Sometimes  the  original  sheet, 
formed  on  the  wire,  is  even  lengthened  out  through  the  action  of  the  presses.  Nothing 
})revents  the  paper  from  shrinking  in  width  or  at  right  angles  to  the  line  in  which  it 


156 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


travels ;  but  it  is  usually  dried  so  fast  that  it  has  no  time  to  contract,  and  the  sheet 
on  leaving  the  dryers  is  found  to  be  very  little  narrower  than  it  is  at  the  press- 
rolls. 

By  subjecting  the  paper  slowly  to  gradually-increased  temperatures,  the  natural 
way  of  drying  by  air  will  be  imitated  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  qualities  of  hand- 
made paper,  its  tough  and  yet  pliable  body,  will  be  in  a  measure  given  to  the 
product. 

If  the  paper  is  dried  fast  and  strongly  heated,  it  will  acquire  qualities  the 
reverse  of  those  we  aim  at ;  it  will  be  brittle,  of  porous  appearance,  and  sometimes 
even  badly  sized,  although  the  engineer  may  have  sized  the  pulp  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  which,  until  then,  gave  always  good  results.  When  the  paper  is  too  vio- 
lently heated  it  becomes  cockled  and  unfit  for  use,  and  must  be  worked  over  again. 

The  larger  the  heating  surface  over  which  the  paper  passes,  the  better. 

The  greatest  economy  of  fuel  will  be  reached  when  the  number  of  dryers  is  so 
large  that  all  the  steam  used  can  be  permitted  to  condense  in  them. 

The  first  cylinder  should  have  the  lowest,  and  the  last  one  the  highest,  tempera- 
ture, and  the  steam-pipe,  coming  from  the  generator,  should  therefore  connect  with  the 
pipe  B  at  the  end,  where  the  paper  leaves  the  dryers. 

140.  Improved  Arrang-ements  of  the  Steam-Pipes. — The  dryers  of  a  Belgian 

FiQ.  68. 


machine  at  the  last  Paris  Exposition  were  connected  by  pipes  in  such  a  way  that  the 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


157 


steam  would  only  enter  into  one  or  two  cylinders,  and  on  leaving  them  circulate 
through  the  preceding  ones.  This  system  would  certainly  heat  a  row  of  cylinders 
very  gradually ;  but  the  large  quantity  of  condensed  water,  which  must  be  carried 
along  from  one  to  the  other,  would  probably  make  it  impracticable. 

Some  dryers  have  lately  been  built  with  both  the  inlets  for  steam  and  outlets 
for  water  passing  through  the  journals  of  either  the  front  or  the  driving-side  only. 
This  saves  the  packing-boxes  and  their  connections  on  one  side,  and  has  been  found  to 
give  satisfaction.  The  construction  of  this  improvement,  in  connection  with  a  scoop, 
is  shown  by  a  section  in  Fig.  68.  The  steam  enters  through  the  channel  b  from  above, 
and  the  condensed  water  leaves  through  the  channel  c  below,  as  indicated  by  the 
arrows.  The  turned  cast-iron  cylinder  a  is  divided  by  a  partition  so  as  to  form  these 
channels ;  a  wrought-iron  ring  d,  shrunk  on  it,  prevents  it  from  entering  too  far  into 
the  cylinder,  and  forms  the  bottom  of  a  stuffing-box,  of  which  e  is  the  movable  part. 

The  short  j^ipe  f  connects  the  scoop  with  the  channel  c,  and  must  be  Avell  fitted 
to  it,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  steam  through  the  joint,  as  the  scoop  revolves  while  a 
is  stationary.  If  a  stationary  escape-pipe,  like  k  [cylinder  a',  Plate  III],  were  used 
instead  of  a  scoop,  this  dangerous  joint  would  be  avoided. 

141.  Steam-Pressure  Regulator. — The  heat  of  the  dryers  is  principally  regulated  by 
means  of  a  valve  on  the  main  steam-pipe  near  the  last  cylinder.  This  valve  should 
be  more  closed  or  opened  whenever  the  pressure  of  the  steam  increases  or  decreases, 
which  is  very  frequently  the  case  if  the  steam  comes  directly  from  the  boilers,  where 
the  irregular  demands  from  other  parts  of  the  mill  produce  constant  changes.  If  the 
temperature  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinders  rises,  the  paj)er  will  be  too  dry,  becomes 
overheated,  and  will  break  on  the  calenders ;  if  it  falls,  the  paper  is  not  well  dried,  and 
wrinkles  or  breaks.  Several  forms  of  mechanism  have  been  constructed,  by  which 
the  steam-valve  is  to  be  opened  or  closed  automatically  whenever  the  pressure  changes. 
The  patented  steam-regulator  shown  by  Fig.  69,  and  owned  by  Messrs.  William 
Russell  &  Son,  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  has  found  much  favor,  and  has  been  adapted 
to  many  machines. 

A  brass-roll  a,  the  bearings  of  which  rest  in  stands  on  top  of  the  frames,  is 
inserted  between  the  last  cylinder  and  the  preceding  one,  and  the  paper  is  conducted 
over  it  on  its  passage  from  one  to  the  other.  The  boxes  or  bearings  of  this  roll  rest 
on  brass  spiral  springs,  and  the  one  on  the  front  side  is  connected  through  the  brass 
rods  c  with  the  balanced  steam-valve  b,  which  admits  the  steam  to  the  dryers. 

A  screw  is  cut  on  the  vertical  rod  of  the  valve  b,  and  fastened  to  the  horizontal 
end  of  rod  c  by  means  of  two  nuts,  one  above  and  one  below. 

If  the  paper,  which  passes  over  the  roll  a,  remains  damp  for  want  of  sufficient 
heat  or  steam,  it  occupies  greater  length,  and  has  more  elasticity  than  if  it  were  dry, 
and  the  roll  a  is  pressed  upwards  by  the  spiral  springs,  raises  the  valve,  and  admits 
more  steam.  If  the  paper  is  heated  or  dried  too  much  it  contracts,  draws  the  roll  a 
down,  and  shuts  off  steam  by  closing  the  valve. 

As  long  as  the  paper  is  dried  as  it  should  be,  the  roll  a  occupies  a  position  at  a 


158 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


certain  i^ermanent  height  above  the  frame ;  but  if  the  quality  or  the  weight  of  the 
paper  is  changed,  it  will  compress  the  spiral  springs  more  or  less  than  before,  and  the 
regular  position  of  the  roll  a  will  be  above  or  below  the  one  which  it  had  previously 
occupied. 

It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  shorten  or  lengthen  the  rod  c,  or  the  distance 
between  the  roll  a  and  the  valve  b,  according  to  the  quality  and  weight  of  the  paper. 
This  is,  as  explained  before,  done  with  the  nuts  which  ftisten  the  valve-rod  to  c. 

The  rod  c  is  made  of  two  parts  :  an  upper  one,  which  is  held  and  guided  between 
plates  fastened  together  with  four  screws,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69,  and  a  lower  one,  which 
is  suspended  by  means  of  a  projecting  pin  in  a  cavity  of  the  upper  part. 


Fig.  69. 


A  horizontal  rod  connects  the  upper  part  of  c  right  al)0ve  the  pin  with  the  front 
journal  of  a  paper-roll  d  on  the  dryer  next  to  the  last  one.  The  usual  bearing  is 
rei)laced  by  one  which  permits  the  journal  to  slide  back  and  forward.  While  the 
paper  runs  over  n,  the  journal  is  in  the  position  farthest  away  from  c,  but  as  soon  as 
the  paper  breaks  and  leaves  d,  a  spiral  spring,  fastened  to  a  fixed  point  and  wound 
round  the  horizontal  connecting  rod,  pulls  the  roll  d  and  the  rod  itself  back  to  the 
end  nearest  to  c.  The  upper  part  of  c,  being  pushed  in  the  same  direction,  leaves 
the  pin  by  which  it  holds  the  lower  i)art  suspended  ;  the  latter  drops  down  through 
its  weight,  and  closes  the  valve  b  completely. 

The  object  of  this  last  described  part  of  the  regulator  is  to  cut  off  the  steam  as 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


159 


soon  as  the  paper  breaks ;  but  by  doing  so  it  allows  the  dryers  to  cool  off  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  paper  cannot  be  dried  if  put  over  them  a  short  time  afterwards,  until 
they  have  been  heated  again,  and  a  good  deal  of  paper  may  thus  be  left  damp  and 
will  be  spoiled. 

If  the  paper  breaks  the  machine-tenders  prefer  rather  to  waste  some  steam  than 
to  allow  the  dryers  to  cool  off,  and  they  only  shut  off  steam  entirely  when  the  machine, 
or  at  least  the  production  of  paper,  stops.  On  some  machines  which  are  supplied 
with  the  regulator,  the  roll  d  and  its  attachments  are  therefore  dispensed  with. 

This  regulator  is  highly  valued  because  of  the  greater  uniformity  of  the  paper 
and  the  decrease  of  breakage  or  waste  experienced  through  it. 

142.  Gearing,  Size,  and  Disposition. — Every  dryer  carries  on  its  journal  on  the 
driving  side  a  spur-wheel  m,  connected  with  the  adjoining  ones  by  intermediate  spur- 
wheels  M',  and  one  of  the  latter,  usually  the  middle  one,  driven  from  the  line  shaft- 
ing by  means  of  a  countershaft  and  pinion,  sets  all  the  others  in  motion. 

If  the  paper  loses  at  all  in  length  while  on  the  dryers,  the  shrinkage  is  so  little 
that  no  notice  need  be  taken  of  it ;  the  cylinders  are  therefore  made  of  exactly  the 
same  diameter,  and  run  with  the  same  speed. 

The  first  paper-machines  built  in  Germany  were  provided  with  only  one  drying 
cylinder  of  large  diameter ;  but  a  comparison  of  that  system  with  our  present  one 
explains  easily  why  it  has  been  abandoned  : 

Three  cylinders  of  three  feet  diameter,  for  example,  offer  to  the  paper  a 
heating  surface  of  3  x  3  x  3.14  =  28//^  feet  length,  while  their  six  heads 
have  an  exposed  surface  of  6  x  f  x  3.14  =  42 /^^^  square  feet.  One  cylinder 
of  nine  feet  diameter  will  accommodate  9  x  3.14  or  28  feet  length  of 
paper  like  the  three  small  ones,  but  its  two  heads  occupy  2  x  %^  x  3.14  = 
127jifo  square  feet. 

All  the  heat,  which  escapes  through  the  heads,  is  lost,  and  as  the  two 
heads  of  the  large  dryer  offer  three  times  as  much  surface  as  the  six  of  the 
three  small  ones,  the  latter  are,  everything  else  being  equal,  more  economical 
as  far  as  heat  or  fuel  is  concerned. 

The  temperature  of  a  series  of  cylinders  can  be  graduated,  as  explained 
before,  while  the  paper  is  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  heat  so  long  as 
it  remains  on  the  large  one. 
The  construction  and  management  of  small  cylinders  are  easier  than  of  large 
ones,  and  the  paper-makers  and  engineers  seem  to  have  fixed  about  30  to  40  inches 
diameter  as  the  most  desirable  size  for  dryers. 

They  are  sometimes  disposed  in  two  or  even  three  tiers,  in  order  to  bring  each 
side  of  the  paper  alternately  in  contact  with  the  hot  surface,  the  upper  side  of  the 
paper  on  the  lower  row,  and  the  lower  side  on  the  upper  row.  The  saving  of  room 
may  also  be  an  object  in  this  arrangement. 

Since  good  calenders,  especially  those  of  chilled  rolls,  have  been  added  to  the 
paper-machine,  the  surfaces  are  so  well  glazed  that  a  difference  between  both  sides,  on 
account  of  one-sided  contact  with  the  dryer    can  hardly  be  observed.    For  conve- 


160 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


nience  and  easy  management  one  row  of  cylinders  close  to  the  ground  is  much 
to  be  preferred. 

If  dryers  are  piled  up  on  top  of  each  other,  the  steam  which  rises  from  the  lower 
ones  is  not  only  prevented  from  escaping  freely  by  the  upper  ones,  but  it  will  also 
dampen  both  felt  and  paj)er  on  them.  Each  row  of  cylinders  also  requires  a  separate 
dryer-felt. 

Though  as  much  of  the  surface  of  the  cylinders  as  possible  should  be  covered  by 
the  paper,  a  small  part  must  always  be  kept  open,  to  facilitate  the  escape  of  steam 
and  to  allow  them  to  be  cleaned  while  running.  On  the  lower  row  this  open  space 
is  left  on  top,  right  under  the  eye  of  the  machine-tender ;  while  the  upper  cylinders 
have  the  exposed  surface  below,  often  difficult  of  access,  and  certainly  of  very  little 
assistance  for  the  free  discharge  of  vapor. 

In  most  modern  machines  all  the  dryers  are  placed  in  one  row,  and  must  im- 
press everybody  favorably  by  the  simplicity  of  the  arrangement  as  compared  with 
the  several  tiers  in  which  they  were  disposed  in  former  times. 

143.  Quantity  of  Fuel  required  for  Drying  Paper. — It  has  been  found  by  theoretic 
calculation,  as  well  as  from  experience,  that  about  ^  pound  of  coal  is  required  to  pro- 
duce steam  enough  wherewith  to  dry  1  jwund  of  paper.  The  fuel,  boilers,  pipes, 
number  and  arrangement  of  dryers,  &c.,  modify  this  quantity ;  and  in  some  mills, 
where,  on  account  of  insufficient  heating  surface,  high-pressure  steam  must  be  allowed 
to  rush  through  the  cylinders  without  condensing,  1  pound  of  coal  or  more  is  used  to 
dry  a  pound  of  paper. 

144.  Dryer-Felts,  Carrying-Rolls,  and  Guide-Rolls. — The  best  dryer-felts  are  made 
of  wool,  woven  into  a  thick  porous  cloth ;  but  they  are  so  expensive  in  the  United 
States  that  cotton-duck,  similar  to  that  used  for  sails,  is  generally  used.  This  cotton- 
duck  is  manufactured  in  pieces  of  about  80  to  100  yards  or  more ;  from  which  the 
necessary  length  must  be  cut  off,  put  on  the  machine,  and  the  ends  sewed  together 
in  a  substantial  manner.  The  seam  should  be  smooth  and  its  edges  turned  outward, 
so  that  it  cannot  make  any  impression  on  the  paper. 

A  number  of  felt-rolls  n,  paper-rolls  n',  a  felt-stretcher  o,  and  a  guide-roll  n\ 
form  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  dryers.  They  are  constructed  like  the  correspond- 
ing pieces  of  the  presses,  and  everything  that  has  been  said  about  them  under  that 
head  applies  here  also. 

Self-acting  guide-rolls  have  been  successfully  introduced  for  these  felts.  Their 
construction  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  2  and  Fig.  3,  Plate  III.  The  bearings  p  of  the 
guide-roll  n'^  rest  with  their  lower  cylindric  ends  or  pins  in  the  short  levers  p',  and 
can  turn  in  them.  These  levers  p'  are  fastened  with  the  set-screws  p^  to  the  upright 
columns  p^,  which  turn  on  pivots  and  carry  at  a  right  angle  with  p'  also  the  longer 
levers  p*.  Shield-like  plates  p^  facing  the  edges  of  the  felt,  are  fastened  to  the  ends 
of  p*,  and  if  the  felt  moves  to  one  side,  it  pushes  the  plate  p*  on  that  side  in  the  same 
direction,  and  the  bearing  p  of  the  guide-roll  follows  at  a  right  angle. 

Whenever  the  felt  shifts  to  one  side,  the  machine-tender  advances  the  journal 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


161 


of  the  ordinary  guide-roll  on  the  same  side  in  the  direction  in  which  the  felt  runs 
over  it ;  and  this  is  exactly  what  our  guide  does  automatically,  if  it  is  well  made,  care- 
fully oiled,  and  if  all  its  parts  move  easily  and  without  friction. 

The  ordinary  guide-roll  is  preferable  to  an  automatic  one,  if  the  latter  does  not 
work  easily  or  if  it  is  not  kept  in  good  order,  because  it  will  then  deceive  the  machine- 
tender  with  a  false  security,  draw  otf  his  attention,  and  cause  accidents. 

If  any  one  of  the  felt-rolls  is  not  level  or  square,  or  if  broken  paper  has  wound 
itself  round  some  part  of  a  roll,  increasing  the  diameter  there,  the  felt  will  be 
stretched  more  in  that  place  than  in  others,  ultimately  run  in  wrinkles,  and  mark  or 
break  the  paper.  When  a  part  of  the  felt  has  been  thus  bulged  out,  it  would  require, 
in  order  to  lay  flat,  more  room  than  was  originally  assigned  to  it ;  the  extended  part 
is  therefore  flattened  out  by  being  doubled  uj)  into  a  wrinkle.  The  wrinkle  is  pressed 
closer  on  the  hot  dryers  than  other  portions  of  the  felt,  it  soon  becomes  so  weak 
that  the  threads  will  not  hold  together  any  longer,  and  a  hole  is  the  consequence. 
It  might  have  been  avoided  by  closer  attention  on  the  part  of  the  machine-tender ; 
but  the  only  remedy  now  is  to  cut  out  the  extended  or  surplus  piece,  and  sew  the  hole 
up  again. 

Dryer-felts,  and  especially  those  of  canvas,  are  quickly  made  brittle  or  burned 
if  allowed  to  remain  on  highly-heated  dryers  uncovered  by  paper.  Whenever  the 
flow  of  pulp  is  shut  off',  the  steam  should  also  be  turned  off"  immediately. 

If  any  one  of  the  heads  of  the  dryers  does  not  close  tightly,  or  if  drops  of  water 
leak  through  some  bolt-hole,  they  will  flow  on  the  felt  and  wet  it  near  the  edges. 
The  paper  which  is  carried  on  these  wet  parts  cannot  become  dry,  remains  weak, 
breaks  frequently,  and  the  felts  themselves  are  also  quickly  ruined  by  being  by  turns 
wet  and  dry.  Whenever  such  a  leak  is  discovered,  it  must  be  stopped  at  once,  either 
at  the  mill  or  at  a  machine-shop ;  but  it  cannot  be  fixed  to  remain  permanently  tight 
if  all  the  joints  are  not  turned  or  planed  smooth  and  straight. 

The  felts  used  to  be  dried  formerly  on  special  small  cylinders,  w^hich  are  now 
generally  dispensed  with.  As  the  dryers  are  situated  in  one  row,  covered  by  one 
canvas  felt,  the  steam  escapes  principally  from  the  open  space  on  the  cylinder  and 
above  the  canvas,  and  the  moisture  which  the  latter  may  contain  has  a  good  oppor- 
tunity to  evaporate  on  the  long  return-trip  under  the  cylinders. 

145.  Width  and  Number  of  Dryers. — The  deckels  limit  the  width  of  the  paper  to 
that  of  the  wire,  less  about  3  inches  (their  own  thickness),  and  the  heating  surface, 
or  width  of  the  cylinders  clear  of  the  heads,  must  be  at  least  as  much.  The  portion 
of  the  shell  which  covers  the  heads  of  the  cylinder  is  not  in  contact  with  steam — the 
heat  is  only  conducted  to  it  through  the  iron — and  it  should  not  be  counted  as 
heating  surface. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  as  large  a  drying  surface  as 
possible,  and  we  will  only  add,  that  less  than  five  cylinders  of  3  feet  diameter  will 
hardly  be  sufficient  for  any  paper-machine  with  the  speeds  used  at  present ;  but  for 
fast-running  machines  and  heavy  papers,  many  more  are  needed,  and  their  number 

21 


162 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


may  be  increased  to  ten  or  twelve  with  good  results.  At  least  seven  or  eight  3  feet 
dryers  should  be  used  for  a  machine  making  100  to  125  feet  of  light  printing  paper 
per  minute. 

VI.  Calenders. 

146.  Object  and  General  Construction. — The  calenders  consist  mostly  of  iron  rolls, 
placed  in  a  stack  or  nest.  The  lower  roll  is  coupled  to  a  shaft  driven  by  belt  and 
pulleys,  and  all  the  others  are  moved  by  friction.  The  surfaces  of  all  the  rolls,  of 
whatever  diameter  they  may  be,  have  therefore  the  same  speed. 

The  machine-tender  takes  the  paper  from  the  last  dryer  by  hand,  puts  it  between 
the  uppermost  pair  of  rolls,  and  guides  it  all  through  the  stack.  The  object  of  this 
operation  is  to  compress  the  web,  and  especially  its  surface,  so  that  the  pores  or 
hollow  spaces  between  the  fibres  will  be  filled  up,  and  the  whole  mass  solidified. 

Paper,  like  other  materials  polished  in  a  similar  manner,  acquires  thereby  a 
smooth,  glossy  appearance. 

To  produce  a  uniform  sheet,  it  is  necessary  that  the  rolls  should  fit  perfectly  on 
one  another,  and  that  their  surfaces  be  true  and  smooth. 

If  the  light  shines  through  between  the  rolls  while  they  are  standing  or  running 
empty,  it  is  an  evidence  that  they  are  not  true ;  if  their  surface  is  rough,  they  cannot 
be  expected  to  give  a  smooth  one  to  the  paper ;  and  in  neither  case  are  they  fit  for 
the  duty  allotted  to  them.  Their  polishing  power  is  proportionate  to  their  weight  or 
pressure ;  they  are  therefore  made  heavy,  and  weights  on  a  leverage,  or  screws,  are 
brought  to  bear  on  the  upper  roll.  Everything  that  has  been  said  about  the  levers, 
weights,  and  screws  used  on  the  presses  may  be  repeated  here.  If  they  exercise  too 
heavy  a  pressure  on  the  ends,  the  calender-rolls  must  spring  up  in  the  middle  and 
become  useless,  like  the  press-rolls. 

If  all  the  rolls  are  cast  solid,  and  the  top  one  is  made  very  large  (not  less  than 
12  to  15  inches  diameter),  the  necessity  of  using  extra  pressure  on  the  ends  is  entirely 
avoided.  The  bottom  roll  carries  and  moves  the  whole  stack,  and  is  entitled  to  the 
same  or  a  larger  diameter  than  the  top  one ;  but  all  the  rolls  between  these  two  may 
be  varied  to  suit  the  intentions  and  views  of  the  manufacturer. 

Whenever  the  paper  passes  between  two  rolls,  it  is  subjected  to  the  polishing 
pressure ;  the  greater  therefore  the  number  of  rolls,  the  more  effective  is  the  stack. 
On  the  other  hand,  very  small  rolls  have  little  weight,  and  cannot  exercise  the  same 
pressure  as  large  ones ;  but  their  smaller  and  sharper  circles  act  more  acutely  upon 
the  paper. 

147.  Passage  of  the  Paper  over  the  RoUs. — The  machine-tenders  lead  the  paper 
by  hand  round  the  rolls  far  enough  to  make  sure  that  it  will  pass  in  the  right  place, 
and  it  requires  a  calm,  collected  mind,  a  quick  eye,  and  nimble  fingers  to  withdraw 
the  hands  always  at  the  right  time. 

Most  machine-tenders  have  had  their  fingers  drawn  in  or  nipped,  and  the  hands 
of  many  will  carry  the  mark  made  by  the  calenders  to  the  grave. 


PAP  EE  -  MACHINES. 


163 


While  some  will  never  learn  to  put  the  paper  through  properly,  most  men  can 
train  themselves  to  it  by  practice  and  experience.  The  smaller  the  rolls  are  and  the 
faster  they  run  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  lead  the  paj)er  through,  and  as  long  as  this 
must  be  done  by  human  fingers,  they  put  an  effective  limit  to  the  otherwise  desirable 
reduction  of  the  diameter  of  these  rolls.  We  have  seen  fine  stacks  of  calenders 
standing  idle,  because  nobody  could  pass  the  paper  through  them  at  the  speed  the 
machine  was  running.  Three,  five,  or  seven  rolls  of  about  8  to  9,  6  to  7,  or  5  inches 
diameter  respectively,  between  the  top  and  bottom  ones,  will  answer  in  most  cases. 

The  substitution  of  some  mechanical  contrivance  for  the  machine-tender's  fingers 
at  the  calenders  would  be  a  desirable  improvement. 

Mr.  Harper's  mill  at  Westville,  near  New  Haven,  Conn.,  is  the  only  one  where 
we  have  seen  an  attempt  of  this  kind  made. 

The  fingers  used  there  and  represented  by  Fig.  70  are  in  principle  like  those 
used  on  sheet  super-calenders. 

The  circular  piece  of  flat  spring  steel  is  riveted  to  the  horizontal  lever  b,  which 
rests  on  the  rod  c.  Two  of  these  short  rods  c  are  fast- 
ened to  the  calender  stands  for  every  roll ;  they  reach  Fio.  70. 
far  enough  in  to  catch  the  edges  of  the  narrowest  paper 
made  with  the  finger  a.  The  rod  b  is  flat,  balances  on 
c,  and  can  be  placed  on  any  part  of  it ;  its  end  d  being 
just  heavy  enough  to  liold  the  point  of  a  against  the 
roll,  without  exercising  a  pressure  which  might  dam- 
age it. 

We  have  been  assured  that  a  set  of  steel  fingers  of 
this  kind  leaves  nothing  to  do  for  the  machine-tender  -'j^Aid^y 
but  to  lead  the  paper  in  on  top  and  take  it  away  below ; 

but  if  they  should  not  give  perfect  satisfaction,  we  would  suggest  that  the  addition  of 
guide  ribbons,  such  as  are  used  for  sheet  super-calenders,  might  answer  the  purpose. 

The  paper  is  always  led  in  on  top  and  out  at  the  bottom,  because  the  pressure 
should  increase  as  it  advances,  and  in  this  way  one  more  roll  is  added  to  the  weight 
of  every  preceding  pair. 

148.  Quantity  and  Quality. — The  number  of  stacks  which  may  be  used  in  one 
machine  can  hardly  be  limited,  but  seldom  exceeds  three,  and  one  or  two  only  are 
usually  seen. 

Their  quality  is  more  important  than  the  quantity,  as  they  will  have  no  effect 
whatever  unless  they  are  constructed  in  a  thorough  and  substantial  manner. 

The  frames  and  bearings,  carrying  the  journals  of  the  rolls,  must  be  substantial 
and  carefully  made  to  enable  the  rolls  to  rest  upon  each  other  perfectly  straight,  their 
centres  forming  a  vertical  or  plumb  line.  If  the  rolls  are  not  put  up  in  this  way,  if 
they  cross  each  other,  they  will  twist  and  wrinkle  the  paper  between  them. 

The  continued  friction  of  the  paper,  especially  of  lower  or  medium  grades,  wears 
out  common  iron  rolls  in  an  incredibly  short  time.    It  gradually  wears  an  opening 


164 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


as  wide  and  as  thick  as  the  sheets,  while  the  ends  through  which  the  paper  never 
passes  remain  intact  and  keep  the  rolls  at  the  original  distance.  When  the  calenders 
have  reached  that  condition  they  are  of  no  use,  and  must  be  taken  out  and  turned  or 
ground  off.  If  made  of  pretty  hard  iron,  and  kept  in  good  order,  they  may  give 
satisfaction,  but  if  they  are  soft,  and  must  be  frequently  turned  off  at  a  heavy  expense, 
it  will  be  found  more  advantageous  to  dispense  with  them  altogether. 

149.  Chilled  Rolls. — Chilled  rolls,  with  a  hard  steel-like  surface,  are  now  justly 
taking  the  place  of  common  iron  ones. 

They  make  a  better  surface  because  they  are  harder,  and  last  for  years  without 
being  redressed  or  ground.  They  are  cast  in  thick  iron  moulds  called  chills.  The 
contact  of  the  molten  iron  with  the  cold  chill  produces  a  change  of  texture  in  the 
surface  of  the  roll,  turning  the  iron  into  a  close-grained,  fine  metal,  resembling  steel. 
This  transformation  is  most  perfect  at  the  surface,  decreases  towards  the  centre,  and 
leaves  the  main  body  unaffected.  A  change  of  texture  may  be  observed  in  such  rolls 
as  far  in  as  one  inch  from  the  circumference. 

The  following  quotation  is  taken  from  an  article  on  this  subject  in  No.  13  of  the 
Paper  Trade  Journal. 

"The  iron  u.sed  is  the  first  consideration.  It  must  be  'charcoal '  iron,  that  is,  iron  smelted  with 
charcoal  as  fuel.  It  must  be  a  'chilling'  iron,  that  i^  an  iron  which,  when  melted  and  poured  into 
an  iron  mould,  will  have  its  surface,  for  a  depth  of  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  two  inches,  hardened 
or  'chilled,'  the  interior  remaining  soft  or  in  tke  usual  condition  of  sand  castings.  It  is  a  matter  of 
the  utmost  delicacy  to  have  the  quality  of  the  iron  proportioned  to  the  easting  it  is  desired  to  make. 
For  example,  the  iron  used  for  casting  a  12-inch  roll,  if  used  for  a  6-inch  roll,  would  chill  to  the 
centre,  and  make  a  casting  so  brittle  that  it  would  not  support  its  own  weight.  What  we  want  in 
rolls  for  paper  calenders  is  such  an  iron  as  will  make  a  chill  from  a  half  inch  to  one  inch  in  thickness. 

"The  moulds  in  which  the  metal  is  cast  are  of  iron,  varying  in  size  according  to  the  size  of  the 
roll  to  be  made,  and  are  technically  termed  '  chills.' 

"These  chills  are  pipes  or  tubes,  from  two  inches  to  six  inches  in  thickness,  to  absorb  quickly 
the  heat  from  the  melted  iron,  by  which  sudden  cooling  the  'chilling'  is  effected.  In  casting,  the 
chill  stands  perpendicular,  and  the  necks  or  ends  of  roll  are  moulded  in  sand  in  the  usual  way.  The 
iron  is  poured  through  a  channel  exterior  to  the  mould,  so  that  it  enters  at  the  lower  end,  and  rises  up 
through  the  chill,  till  it  flows  out  at  the  top  of  the  mould.  When  cool,  the  casting  is  removed  from 
the  chill,  and  is  ready  for  the  lathe. 

"A  lathe  for  turning  chilled  iron  has  but  slight  resemblance  to  the  lathes  ordinarily  seen  in 
shops.  Strong  and  ponderous,  it  moves  but  at  a  snail's  pace ;  in  fact,  about  one-twentieth  of  the  speed 
at  which  lathes  ordinarily  move  in  turning  iron.  It  is  necessarily  a  work  of  great  labor  and  much 
time  to  turn  a  chilled  roll,  owing  to  its  great  hardness ;  but  let  us  here  remark  to  those  whose  expecta- 
tions may  be  too  high,  that  a  chilled  roll,  though  hard,  is  yet  softer  than  the  steel  Avhich  cuts  it.  The 
steel  itself  is  cut  by  the  sand  in  a  grindstone,  and  therefore  no  roll  which  can  be  made,  be  it  even  of 
hardened  steel,  can  crush  the  sand  in  paper  with  impunity.  We  mention  this,  as  those  manufacturers 
who  expect  to  use  chilled  rolls  both  as  calenders  and  crushers  may  be  disappointed." 

The  surface  of  good  chilled  rolls  is  very  little  softer  than  the  hardest  steel,  and 
the  difference  in  hardness  is  not  sufficient  to  admit  of  their  being  turned  with  steel 
tools  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

They  are  ground  in  a  machine  which  is  built  like  a  lathe,  with  the  difference 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


165 


that  the  cross-head  or  wagon  is  not  one-sided,  but  extends  all  across  the  bed,  and 
carries  two  corundum  wheels,  which  grind  the  roll  on  both  sides  at  once.  Corundum 
is  a  mineral  of  the  sapphire  family,  in  hardness  next  to  diamond.  It  is  crushed  to 
powder  and  mixed  with  gum  shellac,  thus  forming  a  paste,  from  which  the  corundum 
wheels  are  moulded  under  a  heavy  pressure.  These  wheels  are  made  about  9  inches 
diameter  and  2  inches  wide,  and  used  until  they  are  worn  down  to  a  few  inches  in 
diameter. 

The  wheels  are  pressed  against  the  roll  by  means  of  screws.  They  are  driven 
by  separate  belts  from  a  shaft  above  the  lathe,  and  revolve  with  nearly  three  thousand 
revolutions  per  minute,  moving  with  the  cross-head  and  grinding  all  the  time,  while  a 
stream  of  water  flows  constantly  on  to  the  roll,  to  keep  it  cool  and  clean.  The  work 
of  the  attendant  consists  principally  in  tightening  the  grip  of  the  grinding-wheels. 

Two  grinders  are  used  instead  of  one,  because  they  do  more  work,  and  prevent 
the  roll  from  being  sprung  out  by  the  one-sided  pressure  of  one  grinder. 


Fig.  71. 


The  grinding  machine  must  be  constructed  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  so  that 
the  saddle  carrying  both  wheels  will  be  moved  in  perfectly  straight  lines. 

The  stack  of  calenders  represented  in  Fig.  71  has  chilled  rolls,  an  expansion 
pulley  and  a  clutch  arrangement,  by  which  it  can  be  quickly  stopped  and  started 
from  the  front  side. 

150.  Steaming  the  Paper. — The  paper,  coming  fresh  from  the  dryers,  is  rather 
hard,  and  cannot  take  the  impression  of  the  calenders  as  easily  as  if  its  surface  were 
somewhat  humid.  The  dry  paper  is  therefore  frequently  moistened  with  steam  before 
it  passes  through  the  calenders.  An  iron  steam-pipe  about  ^  inch  wide  with  nume- 
rous holes  as  large  as  pin-heads,  which  might  be  called  a  steam  shower-pipe,  is  fast- 
ened to  the  frames  of  the  calenders,  a  few  inches  below  the  sheet,  where  it  first  enters. 


166 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


As  soon  as  the  valve  is  opened,  little  jets  of  steam  start  all  along  from  the  holes  in 
the  pipe,  striking  and  moistening  the  paper.  If  it  should  be  found  desirable,  two  of 
these  pipes  may  be  used,  one  on  each  side  of  the  calenders,  to  moisten  both  sides  of 
the  paper. 

The  steam  from  these  shower-pipes  strikes  the  rolls  and  makes  them  wet,  when- 
ever the  paper  breaks  and  leaves  the  calenders  uncovered. 

Mr.  Frank  Fletcher,  of  Newark,  Del.,  overcomes  this  difficulty  by  a  very  simple 
arrangement,  which  shuts  the  steam  off  automatically  when  the  paper  breaks,  and 
admits  it  when  it  is  running  right.  A  round  block  of  light  wood,  about  5  inches 
long  and  1 J  inches  diameter,  rests  freely  on  the  middle  of  the  web  of  paper  between 
the  dryers  and  calenders.  It  is  attached  to  a  light  iron  rod,  which  ascends  a  short 
distance  in  a  perpendicular  line ;  then  proceeds  in  a  horizontal  direction  parallel  with 
the  rolls  to  the  front  side  of  the  machine,  and  down  again  to  the  end  of  a  lever,  which 
opens  and  closes  the  stop-cock  on  the  steam-pipe  supplying  the  shower.  While  the 
paper  is  moving,  the  wooden  block  simply  rests  on  it,  but  it  falls  a  few  inches  until 
the  rod  is  caught  at  its  upper  end  in  a  hook  or  wire  sleeve,  whenever  the  paper  breaks. 
It  is  permitted  to  fall  just  enough  to  close  the  steam-cock,  and  reopens  it  as  soon  as 
the  paper  runs  through  and  carries  the  block  again. 

Mr.  Fletcher  uses  a  steam  shower  only  against  the  side  which  has  been  in  con- 
tact with  the  surface  of  the  dryers,  as  it  is  the  hardest,  while  the  other  one  is  com- 
paratively soft  and  moist.  The  steam  meets  the  paper  on  the  forward  side  of  the 
calenders,  where  it  descends  over  the  toji-roll. 

Every  steam  shower-pipe  must  be  provided  with  a  bent  sheet  of  tin  or  a  trough, 
by  which  all  the  water  which  may  escape  with  the  steam  is  caught  and  carried  off. 

This  steaming  jDroccss  not  only  imj^roves  the  surface,  but  also  increases  the  weight 
of  the  paper  and  draws  off  its  electricity. 

Calenders,  if  very  large,  require  a  considerable  amount  of  power,  and  the  belts, 
if  not  long  and  w^de,  frequently  slip,  and  cause  the  paper  to  break. 

To  prevent  trouble  from  this  source  the  calender-shaft  is  sometimes  provided 
with  a  spur-wheel  and  driven  by  a  pinion. 

VII.  Reek. 

151.  Different  Styles  of  Reels. — Before  the  invention  of  paper-cutters  for  endless 
webs,  the  paper  was  usually  taken  through  the  slitters  after  having  left  the  calenders, 
and  then  wound  up  on  reels.  After  a  roll  of  considerable  thickness  had  thus  been 
formed,  it  was  cut  through  in  a  straight  line,  parallel  to  the  reel  shaft,  placed  on  a 
table,  and  cut  by  hand  with  a  long  knife  fastened  to  it  for  that  purpose.  These 
reels  are  yet  used  in  some  mills,  and  constructed  so  that  the  wooden  cappings  can  be 
moved  in  or  out  to  increase  or  decrease  the  diameter.  They  must  be  adjusted  to  make 
the  circumference  a  little  longer  than  the  desired  sheet  of  paper,  leaving  a  margin 
for  trimming. 


PAP  EE  -  MA  CBINES. 


167 


If  the  sheets  are  to  be,  for  example,  36  inches  long,  the  diameter  of  the  reel 
must  be  about  12  inches ;  and  if  a  roll  of  paper  of  2  inches  thickness  is  wound  up  on 
it,  its  outside  diameter  will  be  12  +  4  =  16  inches,  and  the  length  of  the  outside  cir- 
cumference 48  inches  or  one-third  more  than  desired.  The  average  waste  produced 
by  cutting  the  paper  down  to  36  inches  will  be  over  one-half  of  one-third,  or  one- 
sixth  of  the  whole  production  of  the  machine. 

This  enormous  waste  would  be  sufficient  to  encourage  the  addition  of  paper- 
cutters  to  the  machine,  even  without  the  saving  of  labor  which  they  effect. 

The  American  paper-makers  seem  to  be  well  aware  of  this  fact ;  for  the  old  sys- 
tem of  cutting  cannot  be  seen  in  this  country  except  in  mills  where  tissue-jDaper  is 
made. 

The  paper,  before  it  is  allowed  to  go  to  the  cutter,  is  invariably  wound  up  on 
reels.  The  cutter,  being  supplied  from  full  or  finished  reels  only,  can  be  stopped  or 
started  while  the  machine  is  running,  and  is  to  a  large  extent  independent  of  it.  It 
is  also  desirable  that  the  cutters  should  not  run  too  fast,  and  this  is  attained  by  cut- 
ting the  paper  from  two  or  three  reels,  that  is,  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  paper  at 
once. 

To  do  this  the  machine  must  be  supplied  with  at  least  three  or  four  reels,  two 
or  three  of  which  feed  the  cutter,  while  one  receives  the  paper.  The  reels  are 
fastened  either  on  stationary  or  revolving  frames.  The  stationary  frames  hold  three 
reels  perpendicularly,  one  above  the  other.  Their  construction  is  simple,  but  the 
number  of  reels  cannot  well  be  increased,  as  a  fourth  one  would  have  to  be  placed  so 
high  as  to  be  out  of  convenient  reach. 

If  only  three  reels  are  provided — especially  to  fast-running  machines — the  cutter 
must  work  very  well  in  order  to  empty  them  as  quickly  as  they  are  required  by  the 
constantly  arriving  paper;  and  if  they  are  stationary,  they  have  the  additional  dis- 
advantage, that  the  paper  is  drawn  by  every  one  of  them  in  a  different  direction  from 
the  calenders. 

The  revolving  frames,  which  admit  of  the  use  of  from  four  to  six  reels,  are 
easily  manipulated,  draw  the  paper  always  in  the  same  direction,  and  deserve  the 
preference. 

152.  Construction  of  Revolving  Reels. — One  of  them  forms  part  of  the  machine 
represented  on  our  plates,  and  is  shown  in  a  side  and  front  view  by  Figs.  72  and  73. 

Each  of  the  reels  b  b'  b^  b^  carries  on  its  shaft  a  spur-wheel  a^.  Our  drawing 
shows  b^  in  position  to  receive  the  paper  and  its  spur-wheel  A"  in  contact  with  the 
driving  wheel  a',  which  receives  motion  through  the  pulley  c  and  the  short  shaft  a. 
As  the  paj)er  is  wound  up  the  diameter  of  the  reel,  or  rather  of  the  paper-roll 
increases,  and  if  the  number  of  revolutions  remains  unchanged,  the  paper,  being 
drawn  with  a  constantly  increasing  speed,  must  inevitably  break.  The  pulley  c  is 
therefore  loose  on  the  shaft  a,  and  moves  it  by  friction  only.  The  collar  d'  is  also  loose 
on  the  shaft;  collar  d  is  fastened  on  a  with  a  set-screw,  and  pieces  of  leather  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  collars  are  placed  between  them  and  the  hub  of  the  pulley  c.  The 


168 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


shaft  A  is  slatted  out  for  the  key  d'^,  which  is  held  in  position  by  means  of  two  pins 
and  by  a  notch  in  collar  d'.  A  set-screw  d^,  bearing  on  a  light  rod  in  the  hollow  centre 
of  the  shaft,  presses  the  collar  d',  the  pulley  c,  and  the  leather  rings  against  the  fixed 
collar  D,  producing  a  friction  between  those  parts  which  can  easily  be  increased  or 
reduced  as  may  be  desired. 

The  portion  of  the  shaft  a,  between  the  set-screw  and  the  pulley  c,  is  shown  as 
section,  for  the  better  explanation  of  this  friction  arrangement. 

The  pulley  c  thus  moves  the  collar  d  and  with  it  the  reel,  and  as  the  tension  of 
the  paper  becomes  stronger  with  the  increasing  diameter  of  the  roll  of  paper,  it  over- 

FiG.  72. 

* 


comes  the  friction  between  the  leather  and  the  pulley,  and  the  latter  slips  a  little.  It 
is  the  machine-tender's  business  to  regulate  the  friction  by  means  of  the  set-screw  d'\ 
so  that  the  paper  neither  breaks  nor  becomes  slack. 

The  reel  shafts  are  fastened  on  the  arms  e',  which  are  keyed  to,  and  turn  around 
with,  the  shaft  e.  A  spur-wheel  e',  on  the  same  shaft  e,  is  turned  by  a  pinion  f  and 
crank  f'  on  the  front  side  of  the  machine.  Whenever  a  reel  is  filled  with  paper,  it 
is  moved  by  this  gearing  and  crank  f'  until  it  has  reached  the  position  of  b,  and  an 
empty  reel  has  taken  its  place ;  the  paper  is  then  broken  through  and  wound  up  on 
the  latter. 

It  is  necessary  to  hold  the  reels,  while  working,  stationary  in  the  position  rep- 
resented in  our  drawing,  and  this  is  accomplished  by  means  of  the  lever  g,  which 


PAPER -MA  CHINES. 


169 


pivots  in  g',  and  by  the  bolt  fastened  to  it  with  a  \An.  A  section  of  this  bolt  g  is 
shown  on  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  74. 

The  casing  h  is  listened  to  the  stand  i,  and  in  it  rests  the  bolt  gI  The  head  h' 
of  this  bolt  is  notched  out  to  fit  the  projecting  rib  of  each  of  the  arms  e',  and  is  forced 
to  hold  it  in  its  grip  by  the  pressure  of  the  spiral  spring  in  the  casing  h. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  move  the  reels  round,  the  machine-tender  pulls  the 
lever  g  back,  presses  the  spring  together,  and  allows  the  arm  e'  to  start  off.  He  then 
leaves  the  lever  g  to  itself  again  ;  the  spring  pushes  the  bolt  g^  forward  until  the  next 
arm  e  arrives,  and  by  its  own  motion  fastens  itself  in  the  notch  of  the  head  ii'. 

Fig.  73.  Fig.  74. 


Every  reel  is  provided  on  the  front  side  with  a  pulley  k,  which  is  not  shown  on 
b'  (Fig.  72)  in  order  to  leave  the  bearing  wherein  the  reel  shaft  rests  uncovered. 
While  the  paper  is  rolled  off  from  b  and  b",  it  must  be  kept  stiff  or  stretched;  leather 
bands,  carrying  weights  at  one  end  and  fastened  at  the  other,  are  therefore  laid  over 
the  pulleys  k  of  such  reels.  The  friction  of  the  bands  on  the  pulleys  can  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  the  weights  and  the  paper  kept  of  the  desired  tension  on  its  way  to  the  cutter. 

A  section  of  the  reel  b'^  in  Fig.  73  shows  the  iron  spiders,  the  ends  of  which  are 
tenoned  and  pinned  into  the  wooden  cappings  which  carry  the  paper. 

153.  Electricity. — The  paper  becomes  strongly  loaded  with  electricity  by  the 
friction  on  the  heated  dryers  and  in  the  calenders.    It  is  often  easy  to  draw  sparks 

22 


170 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


by  simply  bringing  the  fingers  near  it,  and  sometimes  it  gives  trouble  at  the  cutter 
by  making  the  sheets  stick  together  so  closely  that  they  can  only  with  difficulty  be 
separated. 

A  copper  cylinder,  of  2  to  3  feet  diameter,  connected  by  a  wire  with  the  soil,  or, 
better,  with  a  body  of  water,  is  in  some  mills  interposed  between  the  calenders  and 
reels,  the  paper  conducted  over  it,  and  relieved  of  its  electric  burden. 

VIII.  Trimming  and  Cutting. 

154.  Slitters. — The  edges  of  the  paper  which  has  been  wound  up  on  the  reels, 
after  it  has  passed  the  dryers,  are  always  rough,  and  must  be  trimmed.  The  sheets 
ordered  by  the  consumers  are  seldom  large  enough  to  require  the  whole  width  of  the 
jDaper,  and  the  web  is  therefore  cut  lengthways  into  two  or  three  parts  by  means  of  small 
circular  knives  called  slitters. 

Fig.  75. 


One  or  two  pairs  of  slitters  must  be  provided  for  this  purpose,  in  addition  to 
those  which  trim  the  edges. 

The  shafts  a  and  b,  Fig.  75,  represent  those  carrying  the  upper  and  lower 
slitters. 

Slitters  of  the  most  generally  known  construction  are  shown  in  those  marked  c, 
as  view  and  section.  A  steel  ring-shaped  plate  c'  is  fastened  with  screws  to  the  cast- 
iron  body  c;  it  is  from  |  to  |  inch  thick  and  turned  slightly  concave,  making  a  sharp 
edge  at  the  circumference.  Two  of  them  on  a  and  b  running  very  fast,  with  their 
edges  touching  each  other,  will  cut  the  paper  like  shears.  The  slitters  on  one  shaft  are 
fastened  with  set-screws,  and  those  on  the  other  slide  freely,  pressed  against  their  mates 
by  means  of  spiral  springs  and  collars  c^.  A  key-seat  is  cut  from  end  to  end  in 
both  shafts  a  and  b,  so  that  the  slitters  and  collars  can  be  set  in  any  place. 

The  edge  of  the  steel  plates  c'  gradually  wears  down,  and  their  diameter  becomes 
smaller. 

The  lower  shaft  rests  stationary  on  the  frames,  and  is  driven  by  a  belt  and 
pulley  on  the  projecting  end;  but  the  upper  one  can  be  lowered  a  short  distance,  until 
the  plates  c'  overlap  each  other  sufficiently. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


171 


The  cogs  of  tlie  driving  pinions  d  and  e  must  be  very  long  to  be  able  to  follow 
tlie  up  and  down  movements  of  the  upper  shaft,  and  yet  remain  geared. 

One  quadrant  of  the  pinion  d,  showing  the  form  of  the  cogs,  is  drawn  separately 
in  our  Fig.  75. 

Several  kinds  of  slitters,  on  which  the  diameter  of  the  cutting  edge  remains 
always  the  same,  have  been  constructed. 

Some  are  made  entirely  of  cast  iron,  turned  conically  on  the  edge  like  f,  but 
they  have  to  be  frequently  sharpened.  To  avoid  this,  a  steel  band  h  is  shrunk  on 
a  cast-iron  body  g,  and  then  turned  out  so  thin  that  it  remains  self-sharjDcning  until 
used  up.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  temper  this  steel  ring,  so  that  it  will  cut  well 
without  being  brittle. 

After  prolonged  and  repeated  use  of  these  different  slitters,  the  author  preferred 
the  old  plate  c'  on  a  cast-iron  body  c  for  rijjping  or  sej)arating  the  web  into  sheets, 
and  retained  f  and  g  only  to  trim  the  edges. 

But  the  advantage  of  f  and  g,  that  the  distance  between  the  two  shafts  can  re- 
main undisturbed,  is  lost  as  soon  as  one  or  two  only  of  the  plates  c'  are  put  on.  It  is 
therefore  preferable  that  one  shaft  should  carry  only  one  kind  of  slitters,  and  many 
paper-makers,  after  frequent  trials  with  other  constructions,  have  returned  to  the  ex- 
clusive use  of  the  old  style  c. 

If  the  edges  or  plates  of  the  upper  and  lower  slitters  touch  each  other  at  many 
points,  they  cannot  cut  as  sharply  as  if  they  were  pressed  together  only  Avhere  they 
work.  It  has  therefore  been  found  of  advantage  to  set  the  upper  shaft  a  little  out  of 
square,  in  such  a  way  that  the  edges  which  the  paper  meets  first  are  alone  in  contact. 

The  deviation  from  the  square  line  required  for  this  purpose  is  so  trifling,  that 
the  working  of  the  spur-wheels  will  not  suffer  from  it. 

If  the  slitter-shafts  are  not  strong  and  stiff,  they  will  spring  and  make  accurate 
cutting  impossible. 

The  diameter  of  the  slitter-shafts  should  be  increased  with  the  width  of  the 
machine — a  3  inch  shaft  being,  for  example,  right  for  an  84  inch  machine. 

155.  Cutters. — The  action  of  the  cutting-machine  is  an  imitation  of  that  of  the 
knife,  guided  by  hand. 

The  table,  on  which  the  paper  is  spread  for  the  operation  of  the  latter,  is  rej?- 
resented  in  the  former  by  a  stationary  bed-knife ;  and  while  the  sheets  are  passing 
over  or  resting  on  it,  the  movable  knife  begins  to  cut  at  one  end,  and  gradually  pro- 
ceeds all  across,  like  scissors. 

The  cutters  may,  according  to  their  construction,  be  classed  as  continuous  feed- 
cutters  and  stop-cutters. 

On  continuous  feed-cutters,  of  which  we  know  only  one  kind,  the  paper  is 
moved  forward  without  any  check ;  it  travels  on  while  it  is  being  cut  off. 

The  reels  deliver  the  paper  continuously  also  to  the  stop-cutter,  as  long  as  it  is 
in  motion,  but  the  web  is  prevented  from  proceeding  between  the  knives ;  it  stops 
while  the  cut  is  being  made. 


172 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


Of  this  latter  kind,  a  great  many  different  ones  have  been  constructed ;  but  we 
shall  content  ourselves  with  the  description  of  the  one  which  forms  part  of  the 
machine  represented  on  the  plates,  and  of  a  later  invention,  which  seems  to  deserve 
the  attention  of  paper-makers. 

156.  Continuous  Feed-Cutter. —  Aside  and  front  elevation  of  Gavit's  continuous 
feed-cutter  are  represented  in  Figs.  7(3  and  77.  The  upper  part  of  the  side  eleva- 
tion, Fig.  76,  is  shown  as  a  section. 

The  paper  coming  from  the  reels  moves  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  over  the 
rolls  A  a',  through  the  slitters  b,  the  feed-rolls  c  c',  and  over  the  bed-plate  d,  at  the 
lower  edge  of  which  it  is  met  by  the  revolving-knife  e,  and  cut  off. 

The  bed-knife  d  is  parallel  witli  the  shafts  or  square  to  the  frame,  and  the 
revolving-knife  e  must  be  fastened  in  e^  e^  so  that  it  forms  an  angle  with  it ;  in 


Fig.  70. 


other  words,  one  end  e  of  the  knife  e  must  strike  or  rather  pass  d  a  short  time  before 
the  other  end  e'  reaches  it.  In  this  short  time,  during  which  the  sheet  is  cut,  the 
paper  moves  continuously  on,  and  has  passed  some  distance  ahead  of  the  bed-knife  d 
at  the  end  e,  before  e  cuts  the  other  end  e'.  If  the  knives  were  arranged  so  that  the 
cutting  edges  would  meet  in  a  horizontal  or  level  line,  the  sheets  would  not  be  cut 
square ;  they  would,  if  folded  up,  show  one  corner  considerably  further  out  than  the 
other.  If,  however,  an  inclined  position  is  given  to  the  knives;  if  the  bed-knife  d  is 
set  so  that  it  descends  from  e  to  e'  as  much  as  the  sheets  would  be  out  of  square  if  the 
edge  of  D  were  horizontal,  the  cutting-knife  meets  and  cuts  the  paper  on  a  square 
line  drawn  from  the  point  where  the  end  e  has  made  the  first  incision. 

This  deviation  from  the  horizontal  line,  or  the  advance  of  the  end  e'  beyond  e, 
must  be  different  for  sheets  of  different  lengths,  respectively  for  different  speeds  of  the 


PAPER-MACHINES.  173 

revolving-knife,  and  can  be  regnlated  by  means  of  the  set-screws  The  cast-iron 
bearings  e',  in  which  the  revolving-knife  rests,  have  a  projecting  extension,  which 
carries  the  cast-iron  body  d',  to  which  the  steel  bed-knife  is  fastened  with  screws. 
The  set-screws  e^  are  threaded  into  the  cast-iron  bearing  common  to  the  two  feed-rolls 
c  and  c\  and  their  lower  ends  rest  on  the  u^^tper  parts  of  the  two  bearings  e',  either  of 
which  can  be  lowered  or  raised,  and  with  it  the  two  knives  d  and  e.  The  bolt-holes, 
through  which  the  bearings  e'  are  attached  to  the  stands  or  frames,  are  elongated 
perpendicularly,  to  permit  of  their  being  shifted  up  or  down.  The  bed-plate  does 
not  merely  rest  on  e',  but  its  ends  are  held  between  two  set-screws  d"  and  by 
which  the  position  of  d  relative  to  e  can  be  adjusted. 

The  driving-pulley  f  is  connected  with  its  shaft  by  a  coupling,  which  can  be 
thrown  in  and  out  of  gear  by  the  lever  f\  and  the  cutter  thus  stopped  and  started.  A 


Fid.  77. 


CRGSSCUPawEST-PHILa, 


3  G'  e'  \z  r  2  a  4  5^  6^  r 

belt  c"  drives  the  feed-roll  directly  from  the  shaft  of  f  ;  the  paper  is  therefore  fed 
with  invariably  the  same  speed  so  long  as  the  general  speed  of  the  machine  does  not 
change,  no  matter  of  Avhat  length  the  sheets  are  to  be  cut. 

The  rolls  c  and  c'  must  hold  the  paper  with  a  firm  grasp  to  puH  it  uniformly 
from  the  reel ;  they  are  of  copper  or  wood,  covered  with  felt,  and  c  can  be  pressed 
against  by  means  of  two  set-screws  c^.  On  wide  machines  these  rolls  should  be 
very  strong,  to  prevent  them  from  springing  in  the  middle.  The  felt-cover  is  fre- 
quently not  rough  enough  to  hold  the  paper  tight,  permits  it  to  sli})  between  the  rolls 
c  and  c\  and  causes  the  sheets  to  be  cut  too  short.  A  number  of  square  diamond- 
shaped  pieces  of  felt  are  therefore  tacked  or  sewed  on  the  surface  of  c,  which  act  like 
so  many  fingers,  and  give  to  the  roll  an  appearance  similar  to  a  chess-board,  the 


174  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAFEB  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


white  fields  being  represented  by  the  pieces  of  felt.  Only  the  advance  corner  of 
these  diamonds  need  be  tacked  or  sewed  on ;  the  remaining  parts  may  be  loose. 

A  sheet  is  cut  off  as  often  as  the  shaft  e*  of  the  revolving-knife  makes  one 
revolution. 

This  shaft  carries  a  spur-wheel  g,  which  is  geared  with  the  pinion  g'  on  shaft  h, 
and  through  it  moved  by  the  wooden  cone-pulleys  h\  h^,  and  belt  h''.  By  turning 
the  crank  and  the  screw  which  shifts  the  belt  h^,  the  speed  of  shaft  h  and  conse- 
quently of  the  revolving-knife  e  can  be  changed  at  will,  and  with  it  the  length  of  the 
sheets.  If  the  revolving-knife  e  runs  faster,  the  sheets  will  be  shorter ;  if  it  moves 
slower,  they  will  be  longer. 

If  the  cones  and  are  short  and  steep,  a  trifling  change  in  the  position  of 
the  belt  will  cause  a  considerable  change  in  the  length  of  the  sheet ;  they  can  there- 
fore be  cut  more  precisely  if  the  cones  are  long  and  less  steep. 

The  revolving-knife  is,  like  the  bed-knife,  a  steel  plate  with  a  straight  edge, 
screwed  on  a  cast-iron  body,  which  is  fastened  to  the  circular  plates  e^,  and  supported 
by  the  arms  E^  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  spring  out  the  knife  e  at  or  near  the 
middle  to  make  it  cut  at  every  point,  and  this  can  be  done  by  driving  keys  between  e 
and  the  arms  e'. 

The  duty  of  the  brass  tubes  or  wooden  rolls  e",  e'',  f/,  is  to  prevent  the  sheets 
from  falling  straight  down,  and  to  carry  them  in  the  circle  indicated  by  the  arrows, 
until  they  reach  the  endless  strips  of  felt  i  i  running  over  the  iron  rolls  k  and  l, 
which  deliver  them  on  the  box  or  table  m,  Avhere  they  are  piled  up,  and  assorted  as 
much  as  possible  by  female  attendants.  The  roll  k  is  turned  into  high  and  low  parts, 
in  order  to  keep  the  strips  i  at  the  desired  distance ;  it  receives  its  motion  through  a 
belt  from  the  shaft  of  the  revolving-knife.  The  slitter-shaft  is  driven  by  a  belt 
from  the  shaft  of  the  feed-roll  c'. 

The  cone-pulleys  h'  and  h^,  with  stand  and  belt,  occupy,  as  shown  in  our  draw- 
ing, a  space  of  nearly  the  same  size  as  the  cutter  itself.  This  space  may  be  saved,  and 
longer — consequently  flatter — pulleys  than  those  represented  used,  if  they  are  placed 
right  under  the  cutter,  resting  on  the  frames,  both  at  the  same  height  above  the 
floor. 

The  theory,  on  which  the  construction  of  these  cutters  is  based,  is  apparently 
quite  correct,  but,  though  many  are  in  practical  operation,  few  paper-makers  succeed 
in  cutting  square  sheets  with  them. 

Its  many  other  good  qualities  and  the  fact  that,  with  careful  management,  it  can 
be  made  to  cut  near  enough  square  for  many  kinds  of  paper,  have  made  it  a  favorite 
with  many  manufacturers. 

The  difficulty  of  cutting  square  sheets  is  caused  by  the  double  adjustment  of  the 
knives,  which  is  necessary  whenever  the  length  of  the  sheet  is  changed. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  knives  have  been  properly  adjusted,  and  are  cutting 
sheets  of  a  certain  length  and  breadth  square  and  correct,  and  that  we  desire  to 
change  the  length  of  the  sheet  a  few  inches.    The  belt  on  the  cone-pulleys  must  be 


PAPER  -  MA  CHmES.  175 

shifted  first  until  the  sheets  are  of  the  desired  length,  when  they  will  in  most  cases 
be  found  not  to  be  perfectly  square,  and  to  remedy  this,  either  the  end  e  or  e'  must 
be  raised  or  lowered  a  little.  Though  the  revolving  and  bed-knives  are  supported 
by  the  same  bearings  e\  it  is  often  found  that  they  will  not  cut  entirely  across  the 
sheet  whenever  one  of  these  bearings  has  been  moved  up  or  down. 

The  bearings  are  only  slotted  out  perpendicularly  to  allow  them  to  move  up 
and  down  while  the  bolts  which  fasten  them  to  the  frames  remain  in  their  places,  but 
there  is  no  provision  made  to  permit  of  a  movement  sideways. 

If  we  consider  the  bearings  with  the  two  knives  as  a  solid,  unchangeable, 
oblong  frame,  which  it  ought  to  be,  it  is  evident  that  its  two  lower  corners,  or  the 
lower  ends  of  e\  will  move  sideways  a  very  short  distance,  if  they  be  allowed  to  do 
so,  whenever  one  of  the  upj)er  corners  alone  is  moved  up  or  down.  But  no  pro- 
vision being  made  for  this  movement,  the  long  sides  of  the  oblong  frame  or  the  knives 
are  bent  or  sprung  and  will  not  cut;  the  machine-tender  alters  their  relative  positions 
by  means  of  the  set-screws  d"  and  d^,  to  remedy  the  evil,  then  turns  the  set-screws  e^ 
again,  and  keeps  on  trying  and  altering  until  he  is  perfectly  satisfied  if  the  knives 
will  cut  at  all,  even  if  the  sheets  are  not  square. 

If  the  bearings  e^  are  suspended  in  the  bolts  at  the  upper  end,  so  that  the  moving 
upper  and  both  lower  corners  can  freely  swing  sideways  while  one  side  is  lowered  or 
raised,  if  all  the  bolts  are  loosened  while  this  is  done,  and  if  the  machine-tender 
understands  the  principle  of  the  movement,  there  should  be  no  necessity  for  changing 
the  relative  positions  of  the  two  knives,  or  of  ever  touching  the  set-screws  and  d^, 
excej)t  when  the  bed-knife  must  be  taken  out  to  be  sharpened  or  replaced  by  a  sharp 
one. 

The  cause  of  difficulties  may  sometimes  be  found  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
cutter  has  been  built.  The  shafts  may  not  be  strong  enough  and  may  spring,  the 
frames  may  not  be  solid,  or  the  working  parts  may  not  be  finished  with  sufficient 
care. 

If  very  long  sheets  are  cut,  if  they  are  thin,  pliable,  and  considerably  longer 
than  the  circumference  (usually  36  inches)  of  the  revolving  frame,  to  which  the  knife 
e  is  fastened,  they  move  faster  than  the  circumference,  and  being  thrown  against  the 
rods  e"  e''  e*,  are  retarded  by  the  contact  with  the  slower  revolving  frame,  bend  into 
it,  and  are  carried  round  a  second  time,  cut  again,  and  spoiled.  The  revolving  frame 
should  be  of  a  larger  diameter  for  such  sheets. 

The  difficulties  experienced  with  this  cutter  in  cutting  square  sheets  of  different 
lengths  have  caused  the  invention  of  improvements,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be 
overcome. 

157.  Fletcher's  Improvement. — Mr.  Frank  A.  Fletcher,  of  Newark,  Del.,  has  re- 
ceived a  patent,  November  28,  1871,  for  a  device  of  this  kind. 

The  following  Fig.  78  and  Fig.  79  show  his  invention  in  section  and  front 
elevation,  y  are  flexible  metallic  plates  bent  along  the  line  z  ;  one  for  every 
sheet  is  fastened  to  the  bed-knife  d,  and  the  lower  portion  y^  is  bent  up  in  the  manner 


176  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

shown  in  the  section.  The  paper,  going  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  arrow, 
descends  between  the  feed-rolls  c  c\  travels  at  one  end  over  the  bulged-out  portion 
of  the  elastic  plate,  and  reaches  the  revolving  knife  e  later  than  if  it  only  passed 
over  the  straight  plate,  as  it  does  at  the  other  end.  The  plate  must  be  bent  up 
more  for  long  and  less  for  short  sheets ;  the  exact  position  is  soon  found  by  experi- 
ment. The  metallic  (copper)  plate  may  also  be  cut  through  on  the  line  z  z^,  both 
parts  joined  together  with  hinges  z^  at  the  lower  end,  and  by  a  strip  of  sheet  lead  ii 
at  the  upper  j^rojecting  end.  This  strip  x  is  fastened  by  the  screw  a;^  and  soldered  to 
2/';  it  is  stiff  enough  to  hold  y^  in  any  position,  while  it  can  at  the  same  time  be  easily 
bent. 

Mr.  Fletcher  uses  a  separate  regulating  plate  y  y^  for  every  web  or  train  of 


Fig.  78.  Fio.  79. 


sheets  that  is  to  be  cut,  because  the  projecting  end  would  have  to  stand  out  twice  as 
far  from  the  bed-knife  d  if  it  served  for  two  sheets,  as  it  would  if  serving  for  one 
only. 

At  the  lower  end  of  the  line  z  z},  where  the  knives  begin  to  cut  the  sheet,  the 
plate  y  y^  is  flat,  and  the  paper  comes  from  the  feed-rolls  c  c'  in  a  straight  route ;  but 
as  the  knife  e  continues  to  cut  towards  the  other  end,  the  increasing  projection  of  y^ 
forces  the  sheets  to  travel  round  it,  and  thus  retards  the  arrival  of  the  square  line 
on  which  they  are  to  be  cut  until  it  is  met  by  the  knife  e. 

When  the  knives  are  once  set  so  that  they  will  cut  through,  they  can,  by  this  at- 
tachment, be  made  to  cut  square  for  different  lengths  of  the  sheets  without  changing 
their  position.  From  personal  observation  we  can  state  that  the  sheets  cut  in  this 
way  leave  nothing  to  be  desired. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


Ill 


158.  The  Dog-Cutter. — A  stop-cutter  of  this  name,  which  it  has  been  given  by 
paper-makers  for  the  better  distinction  from  other  stop-cutters,  is  represented  by  ele- 
vations, showing  it  as  seen  from  the  tending  and  driving  sides  in  Figs.  80  and  81. 

The  front  view  (Fig.  80)  shows  the  hne  on  which  the  paper  passes  to  the  knives. 
It  is  pressed  to  the  felt-covered,  wooden  feed-roll  a  by  the  weight  of  the  three  wooden 
rolls  B  B",  the  bearings  of  which  form  one  piece  of  casting,  bolted  to  the  frames  on 
each  side.    The  frames  are  slotted  out  to  allow  the  adjustment  of  this  casting. 

The  revolving-knife  is  carried  by  a  solid  cylindric  casting  c-,  to  a  projection  of 
which  it  is  fastened.  This  projection  extends  over  one-fourth  of  the  circumference  of 
c ;  it  starts  at  one  end,  and  winds  its  way  across  in  a  spiral  line  until  it  reaches  the 
other  end,  a  quarter  of  a  turn  later.  The  screws  with  which  the  thin  steel  knife  is 
fastened  to  this  projection  are  so  numerous  that  they  force  it  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
form  of  the  casting. 

The  horizontal  bed-knife  d  is  fastened  on  an  upright  cast  frame  d'"*,  which  turns 
slightly  on  hinges  d\  and  thus  yields  to  the  pressure  of  a  spiral  spring  on  a  screw- 
bolt  jf,  supported  in  the  solid  stand  d*,  whereby  the  bed-knife  d  is  pushed  against 
the  revolving-knife.  One  such  hinge  and  spring  arrangement  is  bolted  to  the  frame 
on  each  side,  and  the  latter  is  slotted  out  to  permit  it  to  be  shifted  sideways. 

The  ends  of  the  casting,  which  forms  the  immediate  support  of  the  bed-knife  d, 
are  fastened  to  d^.  A  part  of  the  frame  is  broken  out  in  the  drawing,  so  that  the 
bed-knife  d  may  be  seen. 

The  revolving-knife  is  filed  down  a  little  (about  ^'g  to  |  inch)  at  the  end,  where 
it  strikes  the  bed-knife  first,  but  recovers  its  original  size  a  few  inches  from  the  end.  It 
thus  pushes  the  bed-knife  d  gradually  back  ^'g  to  ^  inch,  and  fits  to  it  closer  and  neater 
than  it  could  if  the  corner  which  first  touches  projected  as  much  as  the  following  parts. 

By  tightening  or  loosening  the  spiral  springs  the  bed-knife  can  be  pressed  more 
or  less  against  the  revolving-knife. 

While  the  feed-roll  is  stopped  the  paper  continues  to  come  from  the  reels,  and 
is  held  in  tension  by  the  weight  of  the  wooden  roll  e,  the  journals  of  which  slide  up 
and  down  in  the  frames  e\ 

Between  the  slitters  f  and  the  feed-roll  a,  the  j^aper  is  carried  over  a  wooden 
board  g  supported  by  brackets  fastened  to  the  frame.  The  board  must  be  covered 
with  zinc  or  copper,  and  offer  a  smooth  surface  to  the  paper.  A  similar  zinc  or 
copper-covered  wooden  support  g'  is  given  to  the  paj)er  before  it  enters  the  slitters. 

The  pulley  h'  on  the  lower  slitter-shaft  is  driven  from  the  pulley  h  on  the  feed- 
roll  shaft. 

The  whole  cutter  is  driven  from  the  shaft  I  (Fig.  81),  which  receives  its  motion 
from  the  line  shafting  and  pulley  i^. 

The  spur-wheels  k  and  k^,  mounted  respectively  on  i  and  on  the  shaft  of  the 
revolving-knife,  are  of  equal  size  and  connected  by  an  intermediate  wheel  ;  their 
shafts  make  therefore  the  same  number  of  revolutions,  or  turns  once,  and  the  re- 
volving-knife makes  one  cut  for  every  revolution  of  the  pulley  i\ 

23 


178 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  sj^ur-wheel  a\  on  the  feed-roll  shaft,  has  36  cogs,  and  is  moved  by  the  cogs 
of  the  wheel  l  ;  the  feed-roll  A  is  of  9  inches  diameter  or  28.25  inches  circumfer- 
ence. With  every  revolution  of  the  feed-roll  or  of  a\  28.25  inches  of  paper  pass 
through  the  cutter,  or  |  f  =  ^  inch  for  every  cog. 

A  sheet  is  cut  ^Yhenever  the  revolving-knife  or  the  shaft  i  accomplishes  one  revo- 
lution, and  its  length  is  determined  by  that  which  the  feed-roll  a  supplies.  If  the 
wheel  A^  is,  for  instance,  turned  one  and  a  half  times,  or  as  far  as  36  +  18  or  54  cogs 
while  the  shaft  i  turns  once,  the  length  of  the  sheet  will  be  54  x  ^  =  42  inches.  The 
driving-wheel  l  must  therefore  be  supplied  with  54  cogs  for  sheets  of  that  length. 

Segments  of  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  more  cogs  must  be  on  hand,  which  can  be  screwed 
to  the  face  of  the  pulley  l  to  compose  any  desired  number ;  and  they  must  occupy 


Fig.  80. 


such  a  position  that  the  knife  begins  to  cut,  shortly  after  all  the  cogs  on  l  have 
passed  those  of  a^  ;  that  is,  as  soon  as  the  feed-roll  a  stops. 

The  feed-roll  a  would  not  stop  suddenly  enough,  if  some  kind  of  brake  were  not 
applied  to  it.  A  wheel  m,  which  is  notched  out  all  round  to  receive  the  dog  o,  is 
therefore  mounted  on  its  shaft. 

A  bearing  n  carries  a  short  shaft  with  an  angular  casting,  which  ends  in  the 
arm  and  point  o  and  in  the  lever  p. 

The  cogs,  which  are  fastened  on  l,  have  on  one  side  a  projecting  flange,  on 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


179 


which  the  lever  p  rests,  as  long  as  the  cogs  are  in  contact  with  those  of  a\  As  soon 
as  they  have  passed  through,  p  loses  its  support,  and  o,  being  jjressed  against  m  by 
the  iron  spring  r,  falls  into  one  of  the  cavities  or  notches,  and  thereby  stops  the  feed- 
roll  effectually.  As  soon  as  the  cogs  on  l  meet  those  on  a'  and  their  flanges  touch  p 
again,  the  latter  is  forced  out,  and  with  it  is  the  dog  o  lifted  off  of  m,  and  the  feed-roll 
allowed  to  start. 

The  wheel  m  must  be  stopped  with  precision,  and  it  is  necessary  that  a  strong 
pressure  should  be  brought  to  bear  on  o. 


Fig.  81. 


1"  4"  6"  8"  10"  12"  P  F  y 

A  strip  of  a  sound  hickory  plank  is  sometimes  fastened  on  to  the  floor,  and  to 
the  frame,  half  way  between  the  floor  and  o,  while  its  free  upper  end  presses  on  o, 
in  place  of  the  iron  spring  r. 

Since  the  addition  of  one  cog  on  l  increases  the  length  of  the  sheets  I  inch,  no 
change  can  be  made  by  these  means  of  less  than  I  inch.  This  is  sufficient  in  most 
cases ;  but  if  a  smaller  variation  be  required,  it  can  be  produced  by  increasing  the 


180  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY.' 


diameter  of  the  feed-roll  a.  Felt  or  paper  can  be  wound  round  it  for  this  purpose 
until  the  sheets  have  the  desired  length. 

The  table  extends  under  the  cutter  some  distance,  and  the  paper,  on  leaving  the 
knives,  drops  down  on  it,  and  is  spread  out  and  sorted  by  the  cutter-girls. 

This  cutter  gives  perfect  satisfaction  in  many  mills ;  it  cuts  square  and  is  of 
sin;Lple  construction.  Its  defects,  if  they  can  be  called  such,  are:  that  no  change  in  the 
length  of  the  sheets  can  be  conveniently  made  of  less  than  I  inch,  and  the  noise  made 
by  the  dog  when  falling  in  and  stopping  the  wheel  m. 

159.  Hammond's  Cutter. — Mr.  George  W.  Hammond,  manager  of  Messrs.  S.  D. 
Warrei;  &  Co.'s  Cumberland  Mills,  near  Portland,  Maine,  owns  the  patent  for  a 
cutter,  granted  to  John  E.  Coffin,  January  3d,  1871. 

The  following  Fig.  82  is  an  elevation  showing  the  back  or  driving  side,  and  Fig. 


Fig.  82. 


  I  ^_  1 

3      e      9      12"  I'  2'  3' 


83  is  an  elevation  showing  the  front  side.  The  drawings  are  an  exac*  representation 
of  the  cutters  in  operation  at  Cumberland  Mills. 

The  paper  is  conducted  to  the  feed-roll  a  (Fig.  82)  in  the  direction  shown  by 
the  arrows.  This  feed-roll  a  is  a  large  iron  drum,  against  which  the  paper  is  pressed 
by  means  of  three  wooden  rolls  a\  the  bearings  of  which  are  operated  on  by  screws 


FAPEB  -  MACHINES. 


181 


and  springs.  Wooden  rolls,  if  made  of  one  piece,  frequently  become  warped ;  the 
feed-rolls  a\  as  constructed  by  Mr.  Hammond,  are  therefore  composed  of  two  pieces, 
or  split  in  half,  glued  together  again,  and  held  inseparably  connected  by  iron  rings 
on  the  ends.  It  is  claimed  for  the  iron  drum  a  that  it  removes  the  electricity  from 
the  paper.  The  movement  of  this  drum  and  of  the  paper  on  it  must  be  stopped 
while  a  sheet  is  being  cut  off ;  but  as  the  reel  will  roll  off  some  paper  even  after  the 
feed-roll  has  stopped,  the  web  must  be  kept  in  tension  by  the  weight  of  the  roll  a'^, 
which  rests  freely  on  it. 

The  movement  of  the  brake  b,  which  ojjerates  on  the  elongation  of  the  drum  a, 
causes  it  to  stop  and  start  suddenly.  The  two  arms  of  this  brake  b  turn  in  the  bolts  b^, 
and  their  levers  b'^  b^  are  joined  together  by  the  bolt  b^,  which  moves  both.  As  long 
as  the  tAvo  levers  b^  form  a  straight  line,  the  brake  b  grasps  and  stops  the  drum  a  ; 


Fig.  83. 


but  a  slight  deviation  from  this  line,  or  a  downAvard  movement  of  the  bolt  b",  opens 
the  brake  again  and  allows  the  drum  to  start.  The  bolt  b^  is  fastened  to  a  flat, 
straight  piece  of  iron  c,  which  has  a  roll  attached  to  its  lower  end,  and  is  guided  or 
incased  in  a  close-fitting  box.  This  box  is  open  so  far  as  the  movement  of  the  bolt  b'^ 
requires  it,  but  is  covered  on  the  rest  of  its  face.    A  bolt,  carrying  a  nut  &,  is  con- 


182 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


nected  with  the  upper  end  of  the  traveller  c,  and  a  spiral  spring,  the  ends  of  which 
are  fastened  to  the  nut  and  to  the  top  of  the  guiding-box,  pulls  the  nut  and  with 
it  c  and  the  roll  downward. 

One  quadrant  of  the  eccentric  plate  c^,  on  which  rests,  is  elevated  above,  or  has 
a  larger  diameter  than  the  other  three,  and  while  it  is  in  contact  with  &,  or  during 
one-fourth  of  its  revolution,  the  levers  are  kept  in  a  straight  line,  the  brake  grasps 
the  drum  a,  and  the  paper  stops.  As  soon  as  descends  on  to  the  narrower  circle  of 
c^,  forced  down  by  the  si^iral  spring,  the  bolt  descends  with  it,  and  the  brake  b 
releases  the  feed-roll  during  three-quarters  of  each  revolution. 

Sheets  of  equal  length  cannot  be  cut  unless  the  feed-roll  stops  and  starts,  or  the 
brake  02)ens  and  closes  exactly  on  time ;  the  descent  from  the  elevated  to  the  lower 
23art  of  the  plate     is  tlierefore  steep  and  abrupt. 

The  ratchet-wheel  d,  fastened  on  the  shaft  of  the  feed-drum  a  on  the  front  side 
of  the  machine,  is  turned  round  by  the  ratchet  or  pawl  d\  which  is  closely  connected 
with  the  pinion  e\  A  spring,  which  is  fastened  on  the  pawl  with  a  screw  d'^  and 
rests  with  the  other  end  on  a  pin  d^,  presses  the  ratchet  constantly  against  the 
wheel  D. 

The  ratchet  must  be  at  work  and  push  the  wheel  d,  and  with  it  the  drum  a,  for- 
ward while  the  brake  b  is  open;  but  during  one-quarter  of  the  revolution  of  the  shaft 
c\  while  the  drum  a  stops,  the  ratchet  d'  must  return  to  its  original  position,  or  travel 
as  far  back  as  it  had  advanced  during  the  other  three-quarters  of  the  revolution. 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  quadrant  e,  which  moves  the  pinion  e\  and  has 
its  turning-point  in  the  bolt  e^.  The  roll  e\  movable  on  a  screw  carried  by  the 
crank  e"*,  is  placed  in  a  sleeve  e*,  which  forms  the  elongation  of  the  quadrant 

The  quadrant  e  is  turned  as  far  as  possible  to  either  side,  or  has  reached  its  two 
extreme  positions,  when  the  crank  e^  and  the  sleeve  e^  form  a  right  angle  or  square. 
Our  drawing  (Fig.  83)  shows  one  of  these  positions,  and  the  other  will  be  reached 
as  soon  as  the  shaft  c*  has  made  one-fourth  of  a  turn.  During  this  quarter  of  a  revo- 
lution, or  while  the  feed-drum  a  is  stopped,  the  quadrant  e  turns  the  pinion  e*  and 
ratchet  backward  as  far  as  they  had  been  advanced  during  the  other  three-quarters 
of  the  revolution,  made  by  the  shaft  c". 

The  length  of  the  sheet  depends  on  the  quantity  of  paper  which  is  delivered  to 
the  knives  by  the  feed-drum  a  during  one,  or  rather  three-quarters  of  one,  revolution 
of  c*.  This  again  depends  on  the  number  of  turns  which  the  pinion  e'  makes  during 
that  time,  or  on  the  number  of  cogs  of  the  quadrant  e  which  come  in  contact  with  it. 
All  the  teeth  of  the  quadrant  come  in  contact  with  e,  or  the  longest  possible  sheet  is 
cut,  while  the  roll  e"*  occupies  the  position  shown  in  our  drawing.  If  the  roll  e*  is 
moved  in  towards  c*  on  the  screw  which  carries  it,  the  throw  is  shortensd,  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  cogs  of  the  quadrant  e  come  in  contact  with  the  pinion  r}  ;  the  latter,  and 
with  it  the  feed-roll,  turns  less,  and  the  sheets  will  be  shorter. 

Every  revolution  of  the  pinion  e  furnishes  a  sheet,  as  long  as  the  circumference 
of  the  drum  a  ;  and  from  this  we  can  calculate  what  difference  in  the  length  of  the 


PAP  EE  -  MA  CHINES. 


183 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  86. 


sheet  one  cog  more  or  less  of  the  quadrant  e  will  produce.  A  short  experience  will 
teach  any  one  how  to  adjust  the  nut  or  roll  e*  so  that  a  sheet  of  the  desired  length 
will  be  cut. 

The  ratchet-wheel  d  can,  however,  be  moved  forward  only  a  certain  number  of 
full  cogs ;  it  cannot  be  advanced  as  little  as  a  fraction  of  a  cog.  The  cutters  of  this 
kind  which  are  at  present  in  use  admit  thus  of  a  change  of  one  or  many  quarters  of 
an  inch  in  length,  but  not  of  any  smaller  variations.  This  is,  however,  sufficient  for 
the  usual  demands  of  the  trade. 

If  the  ratchet  were  allowed  to  rest  on  the  cogs  of  the  wheel  d,  while  it  makes 
its  return  movement,  it  would  make  a  disagreeable  noise ;  the  inventor  has  therefore 
added  the  following  arrangement,  shown  as  side  and  front  elevation  in  Figs.  84  and 
85,  by  which  the  ratchet     is  raised  up  during  that  time. 

The  frame  g  of  the  cutter  has  a  j)rojecting  bracket  on  the  front  side,  which 
carries  a  lever  h,  turning  on  a  bolt  G^;  the  upper 
end  of  this  lever  is  a  fork  h^,  which  clamps  or  holds 
the  conical  plate  i  on  the  feed-roll  shaft.  The  spiral 
spring  h'^,  in  a  stretched  condition,  connects  the 
frame  g  with  the  lever  h,  pulling  the  upper  end 
back  against  the  frame,  and  pushing  the  lower  end, 
the  roll  H^,  against  the  j^late  f.  This  plate  f  has 
an  elevation  f^  on  one-quarter  of  its  circle,  which, 
when  in  contact  with  (while  the  brake  holds  the 
feed-drum  a),  pushes  the  conical  plate  i  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  leveV  h  towards  the  ratchet-wheel  d, 
thereby  lifts  the  dog  k  as  high  as  the  larger  diam- 
eter or  circumference  of  i,  and  thus  raises  the 
ratchet  d',  with  which  k  is  connected,  from  the 
wheel  D. 

The  disposition  and  movement  of  the  knives 
are  shown  in  sectional  front  and  side  elevation  by 
Fig.  86  and  Fig.  87. 

The  cutting-knife  moves  horizontally,  and  is  propelled  by  two  eccentric  plates  l 
on  the  shaft  c*,  situated  close  to  the  frame  on  each  side.  These  plates  l  are  circular 
for  three-quarters  of  the  turn,  and  for  the  other  quarter  rise  high  enough  to  pull  the 
levers  m  back  and  forward  by  means  of  the  little  rolls  l^,  which  form  the  lower  end 
of  the  levers  l\  These  levers  l'  turn  on  the  fixed  points  and  are  connected  with 
M  by  means  of  bolts  m\  which  can  be  lengthened  and  shortened. 

The  plates  l  are  shaped  so  that  the  cut  is  made,  and  the  knife  returned  to  its 
original  position,  during  one-quarter  of  a  turn  of  c*,  or  while  the  drum  a  stops. 

The  casting  n  is  fastened  on  to  the  two  levers  m,  and  the  steel  cutting-knife  o  is 
screwed  to  it  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  cut  like  shears. 

The  bed-knife  p  is  fastened  on  the  plate  p\    The  set-screws  n'  and  n"  work  or 


184 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPFR  FE03I  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


rest  against  plates,  between  which  the  levers  m  are  sliding ;  these  levers  m,  and  with 
them  the  knife  o,  can  thus  be  slightly  moved  up  or  down  and  adjusted. 

A  sheet  of  tin  s  is  fastened  to  a  square  piece  of  wood  r,  which  is  situated  in  front 
of  the  knife  p,  and  guides  the  paper  so  that  it  cannot  fail  to  pass  between  the  knives. 
The  cut  sheets  are  forwarded  to  the  table  or  box  by  endless  strips  of  felt  running- 
over  the  rolls  t  t,  and  held  down  on  these  strijDS  by  the  w^eight  of  the  roll  u. 

Three  pulleys,  by  which  three  different  speeds  can  be  given  to  the  cutter,  are 
keyed  on  to  the  shaft  v  (Figs.  82  and  83)  besides  the  pinion  w',  which  drives  the 
spur-wheel  w,  and  through  it  the  shaft  c*,  and  besides  the  pulley  y,  which  sets  the 
upper  one  of  the  rolls  t  t  in  motion.  A  coupling  connects  the  driving  and  driven 
parts  of  the  shaft  v,  and  is  put  in  and  out  of  gear  by  the  lever  z. 


Fig.  87. 


I  1  I  I  I  u 

3'    6-    9"     \f  I" 


This  cutter  is  of  very  solid  construction ;  its  knife  cuts  horizontally,  the  length  of 
the  sheets  is  easily  regulated,  and  it  has  the  advantage  over  many  other  ones  that  it 
works  without  any  noise. 

160.  Selection  of  a  Cutter — Cutter-Table. — In  the  selection  of  a  cutter  the  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  to  the  one  which,  with  the  smallest  amount  of  machinery  or  the 
simplest  construction,  gives  the  best  results. 

The  paper  is  usually  received  from  the  cutter  by  female  attendants,  one  for  each 
train  of  sheets,  and  laid  in  piles  on  a  table.  While  this  is  being  done,  they  are  care- 
fully inspected,  and  defective  sheets  are  taken  out. 

To  save  the  labor  of  one  or  two  girls,  a  lay-boy  is  sometimes  used,  which  takes 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES, 


185 


the  paper,  and  piles  it  up  automatically,  with  only  one  boy  or  girl  to  watch  it.  This 
will  do  very  well  for  good  qualities  of  paper,  which  do  not  require  much  sorting ;  but 
if  the  paper  breaks  often  and  requires  a  more  careful  examination,  it  will  be  of  ad- 
vantage to  have  a  larger  number  of  eyes  and  hands  on  it,  and  then  a  girl  for  every 
train  of  sheets  is  preferable. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  sheets  should  be  laid  or  piled  up  evenly,  so  that  the  edges 
form  perpendicular  lines,  or,  in  other  words,  that  every  sheet  should  cover  the  pre- 
ceding one  perfectly. 

The  table  must  therefore  have  two  square  sides,  which  serve  as  guides  for  the 
sheets. 

If  printing  paper  is  being  made,  it  is  taken  by  the  finisher  from  the  columns 
which  have  been  formed  of  the  packages  accumulated  on  the  table,  and  at  once 
counted  and  folded. 

Unless  the  sheets  are  laid  so  that  they  eover  each  other,  and  are  piled  up  straight, 
they  will  not  be  folded  exactly  in  the  middle,  as  the  finisher  has  no  time  to  straighten 
them,  and  the  quires  will  then  present  an  irregular  appearance. 

A  cutter  girl,  who  does  not  understand  her  business,  may  cause  much  trouble  in 
this  way  as  well  as  by  not  throwing  out  defective  sheets. 

161.  Paper  in  Endless  Rolls. — The  paper  is  for  many  purposes  required  in  rolls 
instead  of  sheets ;  for  instance,  for  hanging,  roofing,  manilla  bag  paper,  and  for  some 
printing  presses.  In  such  cases  it  is  conducted  through  the  feed-rolls  of  the  cutter, 
all  other  parts  of  which  are  at  rest,  or  if  no  cutter  is  supplied  to  the  machine,  directly 
from  the  slitters  to  a  shaft,  which  is  turned  by  friction  like  the  driving  shaft  of  a  reel, 
and  wound  up  on  it. 

If  it  were  rolled  directly  around  the  shaft,  the  paper-rolls  would  fit  on  it  so 
tightly  that  they  could  not  afterwards  easily  be  removed.  The  shaft  has  therefore  a 
key -seat  all  along,  and  into  it  is  placed  a  thick  wooden  or  iron  key-shaped  rod,  which 
projects  considerably  above  the  surface,  and  has  a  handle  by  which  it  can  be  pulled 
out.  The  paper  is  thus  forced  to  form  a  larger  circle  on  the  shaft  than  its  circum- 
ference, and  the  rolls  can  easily  be  slipped  off  as  soon  as  the  key  is  withdrawn. 

Seth  Wheeler  proposes  in  the  specification  of  his  patent  of  July  25,  1871,  not  to 
cut  the  lower  grades  of  paper,  such  as  wrapping,  &c.,  into  sheets,  but  to  punch  rows 
of  little  holes  across  the  lines  where  they  are  to  be  separated. 

They  could  thus  be  easily  torn  apart,  like  postage  stamps,  and  might  be  wound 
up  and  shipped  in  rolls,  saving  thereby  the  expense  of  labor  and  material  for  count- 
ing, folding,  and  packing. 


24 


186 


MANUFACTTJBE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MAGHINEBY. 


llotive  Power,  Gearing,  and  the  Machine- Ho om. 

162.  M6tive  Power. — The  paper-machine  must  always  be  driven  by  a  motor  of 
its  own,  which  furnishes  power  for  it,  the  stuff-pump,  and  stuflP-chest  only. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  speed  of  the  machine  should  be  regular, 
as  every  part  of  it  is  set  and  arranged  for  the  production  of  a  certain  quantity  of 
paper  per  minute.  The  valves  which  admit  water  to  the  mixing-box,  steam  to  the 
dryers,  and  draw  water  from  the  suction-boxes,  are  opened  for  a  certain  speed.  The 
relative  speeds  of  the  different  parts  of  the  machine  are  also  adjusted  for  it,  and  as 
all  this  cannot  be  quickly  altered  with  every  change  of  movement  produced  by  an 
irregular  motor,  the  paper  will  either  break  or  show  defects  of  some  kind. 

If  the  engines,  rag-cutters,  rotaries,  or  super-calenders  were  driven  by  the  same 
motor  as  the  machine,  the  stopping  or  starting  of  one  of  them  would  reduce  or  in- 
crease the  amount  of  power  which  moves  the  machine,  and  cause  a  corresponding 
increase  or  reduction  of  speed.  Even  the  best  of  governors  cannot  regulate  promptly 
enough  to  avoid  a  serious  derangement. 

If  water  power  is  the  motor,  its  independence  should  extend  even  to  the  water- 
supply.  If  one  forebay  is  used  for  the  wheels  which  drive  the  mill,  as  well  as  the 
machine,  the  starting  of  the  mill,  or  of  a  beater  only,  will  cause  a  sudden  demand  for 
more  water,  which  may  lower  for  a  short  time  the  head  common  to  both  ;  the  machine 
wheel  will  lose  power,  and  its  speed  become  reduced.  The  water-wheel,  which  drives 
the  machine,  should  have  a  forebay  and  penstock,  independent  of  any  other  one,  and 
be  fed  directly  from  the  race. 

If  the  mill  has  an  insufficient  water-power,  the  paper-machine  should  be  driven 
by  a  separate  steam-engine.  Referring  to  a  subsequent  chajiter  on  steam-engines  for 
more  information,  it  may  be  stated  here  that  the  engine  must  be  selected  with  a  view 
to  regular  speed,  and  that  a  quick-acting,  reliable  governor  is  indispensable. 

High-pressure  engines  are  the  most  suitable,  because  the  paper-machine  furnishes 
in  the  drying  cylinders  an  excellent  condenser.  The  steam  from  the  boilers  is  to  be 
conducted  to  the  engine  through  as  large  and  short  jjipes  as  possible,  rather  too  large 
than  too  small,  so  that  nearly  the  full  pressure  may  be  available  in  the  cylinder. 
After  the  steam  has  acted  in  the  engine,  and  transmitted  the  larger  part  of  its  power 
to  the  piston,  it  escapes  at  a  low  pressure  through  short  and  capacious  pipes  into  the 
drying  cylinders,  in  which  the  exhausted  steam  is  utilized. 

The  general  experience  is,  that  it  takes  but  little  more  fuel  to  drive  the  machine 
and  dry  the  paper  with  one  stream  of  live  steam,  than  for  drying  the  paper  only. 

The  following  universally  accepted  theory  gives  a  scientific  explanation  for 
this  fact : 

Boiling  water  and  steam  of  the  pressure  of  our  atmosphere  have  both  a  temper- 
ature of  212  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  nevertheless  considerable  time  and  the  con- 
tinued application  of  heat  are  required  for  the  transformation  of  the  former  into  the 


PAPEB  -  MACHINES. 


187 


latter.  The  heat  which  has  been  expended  during  this  time  on  the  water,  though  it 
has  not  raised  its  temperature  1  degree  and  is  apparently  lost,  is  treasured  up  by  it 
and  is  called  "latent  heat." 

Before  boiling  water  can  change  its  liquid  state  into  that  of  steam,  it  must  have 
taken  up  a  large  amount  of  this  latent  heat. 

In  order  to  measure  it,  a  unit  has  been  established,  which  consists  in  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  which  is  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  1  kilogram  of  water  1 
degree  of  the  Centigrade  thermometer  [100  degrees  Centigrade  are  equal  to  212 
degrees  Fahrenheit]  under  the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  or  14.7  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  According  to  Regnault,  606.5  +  0.305  t  gives  the  number  of  units 
which  are  required  to  transform  freezing  water  (of  0  degrees  Centigrade)  into  steam 
of  t  Centigrade.  For  steam  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere :  t  is  the  boiling-point 
or  100  degrees  Centigrade,  and  606.5  +  0.305  x  100  =  637  units  are  its  latent  heat. 
This  steam,  which  has  consumed  637  heat-units  to  overcome  the  cohesion  of  the 
water,  has  only  a  pressure  of  14.7  pounds,  and  a  temperature  of  100  degrees  Centi- 
grade or  212  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

A  comparatively  trifling  amount  of  heat  is  required  to  raise  this  steam  to  a 
higher  tem^^erature  and  pressure.  Steam  of  five  atmospheres  pressure,  for  example, 
has  a  temperature  of  about  150  degrees  Centigrade,  and  according  to  our  formula 

606.5  +  0.305  X  150  =  652.2  heat-units 

for  its  formation  from  freezing  water,  or  only  15  units  more  than  steam  of  one 
atmosphere  pressure. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  steam  which  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air,  after  it 
has  been  used  in  the  engine,  carries  with  it  nearly  all  the  latent  heat,  or  over  600  heat- 
units.  This  is  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  all  the  absorbed  heat ;  the  balance,  which 
has  been  utilized  in  the  engine,  being  only  a  small  part — some  writers  put  it  at  less 
than  one-tenth — of  the  heat  produced  by  the  consumption  of  the  fuel. 

When  steam  is  condensing,  all  this  latent  heat  is  set  free  again  and  delivered  to 
the  surrounding  objects  of  a  lower  temperature. 

Steam  loses  in  the  dryers,  first,  its  temperature  above  212  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
and  then  the  latent  heat ;  but,  since  the  latter  is  inherent  in  steam  of  any  pressure 
and  so  overwhelmingly  the  larger  portion,  live  steam  cannot  dry  a  great  deal  more 
paper  than  a  similar  quantity  of  exhausted  steam. 

Steam  of  high  pressure  has  also  a  stronger  tendency  to  rush  through  the  cylin- 
ders without  being  exhausted  than  that  which  has  been  previously  expanded. 

A  good  governor  permits  the  passage  to  the  engine  of  just  the  amount  of  steam 
which  is  necessary  to  produce  a  certain  power,  and  thereby  becomes  also  a  perfect 
regulator  for  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  dryers.  If  the  speed  of  the  engine  and 
machine  are  increased,  a  larger  quantity  of  steam  is  not  only  required  for  the  engine, 
but  also  for  the  increased  amount  of  paper  which  is  to  be  dried. 

Every  steam-engine  in  a  paper-mill  should  be  built  larger  than  at  first  required. 


188 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


because,  in  the  course  of  time,  it  is  almost  invariably  burdened  with  more  work  than 
it  was  originally  intended  for.  It  will  probably  be  expected  to  run  the  paper-machine 
faster  and  make  more  jiaper  every  succeeding  year ;  and  if  the  exhausted  steam  is 
used  in  the  dryers,  as  it  should  be,  it  will  offer  some  resistance  to  the  piston,  and  a 
larger  engine  than  might  otherwise  be  necessary  should  be  used  on  that  account. 

A  steam  cylinder  of  from  8  to  12  inches  diameter,  16  to  24  inches  stroke,  and  60 
to  80  revolutions  per  minute,  according  to  the  size  of  the  machine,  number  of  screens, 
calenders,  stuff-chests,  &c.,  will  be  sufficient. 

The  machine-tender  should  have  the  engine  under  his  control ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore often  located  inside  of  the  machine-room. 

The  engine  sometimes  consumes  more  steam  than  the  dryers  can  use,  and  the 
surplus  must  either  be  allowed  to  escape  or  be  utilized.  The  waste  or  escape-pipe 
therefore  branches  off  in  two  directions :  one  leading  to  the  dryers,  and  the  other  to 
any  point  outside  of  the  building. 

The  latter  branch  is  provided  with  a  safety-valve,  through  which  the  steam 
must  make  its  way.  It  must  be  regulated  so  that  no  steam  can  escape  so  long  as  the 
dryers  have  not  been  supplied  with  a  quantity  sufficient  to  dry  the  paper. 

To  reduce  the  counter-pressure  on  the  piston  as  much  as  possible,  all  the  pipes 
through  which  the  exhausted  steam  passes  must  be  very  large — of  at  least  1  inch 
more  diameter  than  those  through  which  the  engine  is  supplied  with  live  steam — the 
larger  the  better.  The  openings  through  the  journals  and  the  pipes  leading  to  them 
are  usually  too  small,  and  cause  a  loss  of  power  and  fuel. 

163.  Gearing. — Figs.  1,  2,  3,  Plate  IV,  represent  a  section,  a  front  elevation,  and 
a  plan  of  the  paj)er-machine,  the  details  of  which  are  shown  on  the  previous  plates. 

A  A  are  two  pulp-dressers ;  b,  a  chest ;  c,  the  wire ;  d,  couch-rolls ;  e  and  f,  first 
and  second  press  ;  g,  dryers ;  h  and  h',  stacks  of  calenders  ;  i,  reels ;  k,  a  dog-cutter. 

The  whole  machine  is  driven  by  a  shaft  l,  which,  by  means  of  spur-wheels,  con- 
nects with  an  intermediate  shaft  m,  and  from  it,  by  another  set  of  spur-wheels,  drives 
the  second  press.  The  first  and  second  press  require  a  considerable  amount  of  power, 
and,  being  usually  close  to  the  main  shaft,  they  are  often  both  driven  by  spur-wheels. 
In  the  machine  represented  on  Plate  IV,  the  first  press,  the  couchers,  the  dryers,  and 
the  calenders  are  driven  with  belts  directly  from  pulleys  on  the  shaft  m;  but  the  seven 
dryers  are  divided  into  two  lots  of  three  and  four,  one  of  which  is  geared  directly  with 
the  shaft      and  the  other  with  the  counter-shaft  g^ 

The  cutter  stops  and  starts  while  the  machine  is  running,  and  reacts  with  every 
stop  or  start  on  the  shaft  from  which  it  is  directly  driven.  If  the  cutter-shaft  be  con- 
nected with  one  of  the  calender-shafts,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  and  it  stops  suddenly, 
all  the  power  which  it  has  heretofore  consumed  is  for  the  moment  transferred  to  the 
calenders,  until  this  surplus  power  or  increased  speed  reaches,  on  its  way  back,  the 
engine  or  water-wheel,  and  is  reduced  by  the  governor.  The  sudden  reaction  has, 
however,  acted  meanwhile  like  a  blow  upon  the  calenders,  and  perhajjs  broken  the 
paper.    If  it  be  accessary,  as  in  most  cases,  that  the  cutter  should  be  driven  by  the 


FAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


189 


same  motor  as  the  rest  of  the  machine,  the  connection  with  it  shoukl  be  as  direct  as 
possible.  In  our  drawing,  the  cutter  and  reels  receive  their  motion  directly  from  the 
shaft  L,  transferred  to  them  through  the  counter-shaft  l\  The  screen-shafts  and 
are  moved  in  the  same  way  by  means  of  a  counter-shaft  j}  ;  and  the  shake-shaft 
c,  the  fan-pump  c",  and  felt-washer  e  receive  their  movement  directly  and  indirectly 
from  the  screen -shaft  a\ 

Care  should  be  taken  in  the  disposition  of  the  driving  part  of  a  paper-machine 
to  permit  of  an  easy  approach  to  all  its  parts.  All  that  is  said  in  a  later  chapter  on 
gearings  and  belts  applies  here. 

164.  Change  of  Speed. — The  machine  must  run  slowly  if  a  heavy  paper  is  to  be 
made,  and  fast  if  it  is  to  be  light ;  means  to  change  the  speed  without  altering  that  of 
the  motor  must  therefore  be  provided. 

The  machine  represented  on  Plate  IV  stands  on  the  second  floor,  and  below  that 
floor  are  located  a  pair  of  large  cone-pulleys,  through  which  the  motor  transmits  its 
power  to  the  machine.  Changes  in  the  speed  of  the  machine  can  be  made  by  simply 
shifting  the  belt  on  these  pulleys. 

In  many  mills  the  shafts  l  and  m  are  supplied  with  several  sets  of  spur-wheels, 
which  give  as  many  different  speeds. 

A  simpler  and  less  expensive  system  is  represented  by  the  front  elevation, 
Fig.  88.   An  intermediate  pinion  p  is  inserted  between  the  driving-pinion     on  shaft 


Fig.  88. 


0  1'  2'  3'  A'  5/  6' 

1  I  I  1  1  I  I 


L  and  the  spur-wheel  on  shaft  m.  The  pinion  p  does  not  rest  in  a  stationary  bear- 
ing, but  revolves  upon  a  stud-pin,  which  is  bolted  to  the  slotted  or  open  bracket  p\ 
The  opening  in  this  bracket  is  concentric  with  m^,  so  that  the  pitch-line  of  the  pinion  p 
meets  the  pitch-line  of  m\  in  whatever  point  of  the  slot  p^  the  stud-pin  may  be  secured. 

The  same  wheel  and  pinion  p  will  therefore  serve  with  a  number  of  pinions 
of  different  sizes,  by  the  exchange  of  which  the  machine  receives  a  different  speed. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  the  arrangement  of  the  gearings  that  the  screens  and 
the  cutter  will  work  more  satisfactorily  if  not  subjected  to  many  changes  of  speed. 

The  paper,  while  passing  over  the  different  parts  of  the  machine,  is  always  kept 


190 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


under  a  strong  tension,  which  must  stretch  it  somewhat  lengthways,  especially  while 
it  is  wet.  The  first  press,  in  drawing  the  web  from  the  wire,  where  it  is  yet  ia  very 
soft  condition,  will  stretch  it  somewhat ;  another  smaller  addition  to  its  length  is  made 
by  the  second  press,  while  it  may  shrink  on  the  dryers,  and  become  elongated  again 
on  the  calenders. 

If  all  the  i^ulleys  have  been  fixed  for  a  certain  speed,  weight  of  paper,  and  kind 
of  pulp,  so  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  these  elongations  and  contractions,  and  suddenly 
a  change  in  the  pulp  occurs,  it  is  beaten  longer  or  shorter,  or  more  linen,  straw,  or 
imperfections  have  entered  into  its  composition,  it  will  be  found  that  the  first  press 
and  following  parts  are  pulling  the  web  either  too  much  or  too  little  for  its  changed 
character  and  tenacity,  and  the  paper  breaks  or  is  injured.  The  same  experience 
will  be  had,  if  the  paper  be  suddenly  made  thicker-  or  thinner.  Even  if  the  speed 
of  the  whole  machine  only  be  changed,  everything  else  remaining  as  before,  the  paper 
may  be  differently  formed  on  the  wire ;  it  may  leave  the  couchers  with  more  or  with 
less  water,  and  its  tenacity  will  be  decreased  or  increased. 

In  any  one  of  these  cases,  which  occur  frequently,  the  relative  speeds  of  the 
presses,  dryers,  and  calenders  may  have  to  be  slightly  changed. 

A  number  of  strips  of  canvas  or  lagging,  as  wide  as  the  face  of  the  pulleys,  is 
usually  kept  on  hand  for  this  purpose. 

They  are,  when  needed,  covered  on  one  side  with  melted  resin,  and  laid  on  the 
surface  of  the  driving  or  driven  pulley  to  increase  its  diameter.  Through  the  num- 
ber and  length  of  the  strips,  held  on  the  j)ulley  by  the  resin,  any  slight  change  of 
speed  can  be  produced,  and,  though  a  very  rude  expedient,  this  lagging  is  used  even 
at  the  present  time. 

We  have  seen  cone-pulleys  and  expanding-pulleys  of  many  different  construc- 
tions used  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  former  take  too  much  room  and  are  expensive, 
and  most  of  the  latter  may  be  found  covered  with  lagging,  after  running  a  short 
time,  which  is  evidence  that  they  are  considered  worthless  by  the  best  judges,  the 
machine-tenders. 

Some  of  these  contrivances  are  too  complicated ;  many  get  out  of  order  easily, 
and  others  cannot  be  adjusted  without  stopping  the  machine. 

The  only  expanding-pulley  or  changeable  speed-pulley,  which  we  have  seen 
extensively  and  successfully  used,  is  that  invented  and  patented  by  Thomas  H.  Savery, 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.,  of  Wilmington,  Del. 

The  employment  of  toothed  or  friction-wheels  for  the  transmission  of  power  from 
the  hand-wheels  to  the  scroll  or  screws,  which  expand  or  contract  the  segments  form- 
ing the  pulley,  is  considered  a  hew  and  important  feature.  It  has  made  the  expanding- 
pulley  a  success,  as  it  enables  the  operator  to  adjust  the  speed  of  the  roll  which  it  is  driv- 
ing, with  accuracy  and  ease,  while  the  machine  is  running  and  the  pulley  revolving. 

This  pulley  is  represented — 

In  Fig.  89,  showing  its  section  ou  the  line  b'  b'  of  Fig.  90. 
In  Fig.  90,  showing  its  section  on  the  line  b  b  of  Fig.  89,  and 
In  Fig.  91  by  a  perspective  view. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHmES. 


191 


The  pulley-rim  is  composed  of  six  segments  a,  each  having  its  arm  a\  which 
fits  snugly,  but  slides  freely  endwise  in  a  pocket  planed  in  the  body  l,  which  forms 


Fig.  90. 


Fio.  91. 


part  of  the  hub  k.  Into  oblong  ojienings  in  the  ai-ms  brass  blocks  c  are  fitted, 
which  have  projecting  teeth  fitting  into  and  engaging  with  the  scroll  or  square  spiral 
thread  d  on  the  side  of  the  spur-wheel  d\ 
It  is  evident  that,  when  the  scroll  is  re- 
volved in  one  direction,  all  the  arms  must 
approach  the  centre,  and  the  diameter  of 
the  pulley  will  be  decreased;  but,  when  re- 
volved in  the  opposite  direction,  the  diam- 
eter will  be  increased  by  the  arms  being 
thrown  outward. 

The  hand-wheel  h,  secured  to  the 
spur-wheel  g,  moves  the  scroll  d  by  means 
of  the  intermetliate  wheel  f  and  pinion  e, 
both  of  which  are  keyed  on  one  shaft,  sepa- 
rated by  the  collar  k\  The  hand-wheel  h 
has  a  movement  in  common  Avith  the  other 
parts  of  the  jDulley,  and,  being  in  a  promi- 
nent and  accessible  position,  the  operator's 
hand  can  at  any  time  be  applied  to  it  to  accelerate  or  retard  its  motion.  As  the 
hand-wheel  must  move  freely  upon  the  hub  g  of  the  pulley,  it  has,  in  some  in- 


192 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FliOM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


stances,  a  tendency  to  change  its  relative  position  by  turning  on  it  without  outside 
assistance,  and  consequently  changes  the  speed  of  the  roll.  To  prevent  this  occur- 
rence the  pulley  may  be  safely  locked  in  any  position,  so  that  when  the  desired  speed 
is  once  gained,  it  can  only  be  altered  by  the  hand  of  the  operator,  by  means  of  a 
simple  and  efficient  arrangement. 

The  steel  set-screw  h\  which  passes  through  the  hub  g,  its  point  resting  in  the 
groove  prepared  for  it  on  the  hub  k,  is  provided  with  a  small  handle,  extending  out- 
ward between  two  arms  of  the  hand-wheel,  and  the  slightest  tap  in  one  direction 
upon  this  handle  will  at  once  tighten  the  whole  mechanism,  so  that  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  move  it,  while  a  tap  in  the  other  direction,  turning  the  handle  only  a  short 
distance,  will  loosen  the  wheel,  so  that  it  will  move  again  quite  freely. 

The  small  wrought-iron  collar  i  is  fastened  on  the  hub  k  by  a  set-screw,  and 
prevents  the  hand-wheel  and  jjinion  from  moving  from  their  proper  positions. 

Some  of  these  pulleys  are  keyed  on  to  the  driving-shaft ;  others  are  made  with  a 
clutch-hub,  fitting  loosely  and  revolving  freely  upon  the  shaft ;  their  movements  are 
imparted  to  the  shaft  through  the  sliding-clutch  l,  when  engaged  with  the  hub  k,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  89  ;  but  when  the  clutch  is  thrown  out  of  gear  by  the  shifter,  the  pulley 
continues  to  revolve  and  the  clutch  stops. 

In  these  pulleys  the  expansion  is  so  gradual  that  the  hand-wheel  must  make 
eighteen  revolutions  to  turn  the  spiral  screw  d  once.  One  turn  of  d  increases  or  de- 
creases the  diameter  of  the  pulley  one  inch.  A  36-inch  expanding-pulley  represents 
all  possible  diameters  between  34  and  38  inches,  admitting  a  variation  of  four  inches 
in  all. 

The  application  of  lagging  is  distasteful  to  machine-tenders ;  it  does  not  admit 
of  such  slight  variations  of  speed  as  the  expanding-pulley,  and  sometimes  drops  from 
the  pulleys  while  running. 

The  expanding-pulley,  described  above,  has  become  a  favorite  with  the  machine- 
tenders  because  of  its  convenience  and  neatness,  and,  as  it  removes  some  of  the  irregu- 
larities which  cause  the  paper  to  break,  it  is  a  source  of  economy. 

The  shafts  of  the  first  and  second  press,  of  the  dryers  and  calenders  of  the  machine 
shown  on  the  plate,  are  furnished  with  these  expanding-pulleys  p,  their  couplings 
being  thrown  in  or  out  from  the  front  side  of  the  machine  by  means  of  the  arrange- 
ment shown  on  previous  plates. 

Every  machine  should  be  provided  with  convenient  means,  by  which  any  part 
of  it  can  be  easily  and  quickly  thrown  in  and  out  of  gear. 

165.  Size  and  Speed. — It  is  natural  that  a  manufacturer  should  endeavor  to  make 
as  much  paper  with  his  machine  as  possible,  because  very  little  more  capital  and  labor 
are  required  for  the  production  of  100  feet  than  of  50  feet  per  minute,  if  he  has  power 
and  machinery  enough  to  do  it. 

The  faster  the  machine  runs,  the  less  time  is  allowed  for  the  formation  of  the 
paper  and  for  the  escape  of  the  water  on  the  wire,  presses,  and  dryers,  and  if  the 
speed  is  increased  too  much  the  quality  must  suffer. 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


193 


If  every  part  is  constructed  with  the  utmost  care,  substantially  and  true,  a  machine 
like  the  one  represented  on  Plate  IV,  with  a  wire  33  feet  in  length,  and  seven  dry- 
ing-cylinders of  three  feet  diameter,  can  make  news-print  paper  at  a  speed  of  from 
110  to  130  feet  per  minute. 

If  the  length  of  the  wire  and  the  number  of  presses  and  drying-cylinders  are 
increased,  the  machine  may  be  made  to  run  faster,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  im- 
proved machinery  will,  in  the  future,  admit  of  much  higher  speeds  than  those  at 
present  used. 

The  paper-mills  depend  in  this  matter  almost  entirely  upon  the  perfection  of  the 
tools  and  the  skill  of  the  operatives  and  engineers  in  the  machine  shops. 

The  width  of  the  machines  has  also  been  increased,  until  wires  86  inches  wide 
are  now  quite  numerous,  and  some  of  90  and  even  100  inches  are  in  use. 

A  positive  limit  is  set  to  the  width  of  a  machine  of  the  present  construction  by 
the  proportions  and  capabilities  of  the  human  body.  The  machine-tender  must  be 
able  to  reach  the  middle  of  the  sheet  with  one  hand,  so  that  every  part  of  it  can  be 
taken  hold  of  by  the  men  on  both  sides. 

Wider  machines  than  those  mentioned  would  certainly  offer  difficulties  in  this 
respect. 

It  is  also  a  fact  that  wires  and  felts  will  not  last  so  long  on  wide  machines  as  on 
narrow  ones,  and  machine-tenders,  who  are  competent  to  run  them,  receive  higher 
w^ges. 

A  larger  machine,  on  the  other  hand,  allows  of  a  larger  variety  of  sizes  of  paper 
to  be  made;  it  takes  less  room,  and  costs  less  than  two  machines  of  half  its  Avidth.  The 
same  quantity  of  paper,  which  loses  only  two  trimmings  or  edges  on  a  wide  machine, 
would  give  twice  as  much  waste  from  this  source  if  made  on  two  narrow  machines. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  it  is  our  opinion  that  paper  can  be  made 
as  cheaply  on  62  to  72-inch  machines  as  on  wider  ones,  though  the  latter  may  be 
preferred  for  other  reasons. 

166.  Foundation. — The  foundation  on  which  the  paper-machine  is  mounted,  must 
be  solid  and  united,  so  that  not  the  slightest  vibration  or  change  of  position  of  any  of 
its  parts  can  take  place. 

Wooden  sills,  about  10  to  12  inches  square,  underlie  the  frames  of  the  machine 
and  the  stands  which  carry  the  shafts.  Timbers  which  will  withstand  the  influence  of 
water  for  a  long  time,  such  as  white  oak  or  hard  yellow  pine,  should  be  selected  for 
them,  and  they  must  be  connected  crosswise  by  numerous  joists  and  short  sills,  mor- 
tised and  pinned  together,  so  as  to  form  a  strong  framework. 

This  framework  may  rest  on  stone  walls,  about  2  feet  wide,  extending  as  far  as 
the  sills,  if  the  paper-machine  stands  on  the  lower  floor ;  but,  if  it  is  situated  on  the 
engine-room  floor,  the  walls  must  be  higher  and  consequently  stronger,  or  they  may 
be  entirely  dispensed  with,  and  replaced  by  iron  girders  and  columns.  The  space 
below  the  machine  is  then  occupied  by  a  portion  of  the  gearings,  pumps,  stuff-catcher, 
stuff'-chests,  &c. 

2.5 


194  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  wooden  sills,  on  which  the  frames  and  stands  are  fastened  with  bolts  and 
wood-screws,  must  present  a  perfectly  level  surface,  but  the  floor  between  them,  under 
the  machine,  should  be  a  little  lower,  and  incline  towards  openings,  through  which 
the  wash-water  and  impurities  are  carried  off.  The  floor  around  the  machine  should 
also  be  provided  with  such  openings,  and  pitched  towards  them,  as  it  would  be  other- 
wise difficult  to  keep  it  clean  and  dry. 

Heavy  machinery  is  frequently  moved  over  these  floors ;  they  must  therefore  be 
strong.  The  machine-room  floor  at  Messrs.  Jessup  &  Moore's  Rockland  Mill  is  com- 
posed of  narrow  4  inch  planks  laid  on  iron  joists  and  girders,  and  deserves  imitation. 

167.  Machine -Room. — Many  paper-machines  are  found  in  buildings,  which  they 
fill  up  to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  not  room  enough  left  on  the  front  side  to  take 
out  a  roll  in  a  straight  line,  nor  to  reach  any  part  of  the  gearings  without  climbing 
over  some  shafts.  This  is  not  only  inconvenient  and  dangerous,  but  causes  loss  of 
time,  and  is  therefore  the  reverse  of  economy. 

The  machine-room,  with  only  one  machine  standing  in  the  middle,  should  not 
be  less  than  three  times  as  wide  as  the  wire  with  6  feet  added ;  or  the  room  for  a  72- 
inch  machine  should  be  at  least  24  feet  wide. 

If  two  or  more  machines,  with  their  front  sides  facing  each  other,  are  located  in 
one  room,  the  space  between  them  need  only  be  a  few  feet  wider  than  the  widest  of 
the  machines,  and  will  serve  for  both. 

168.  Ventilators. — If  the  steam  which  is  evaporated  on  the  dryers,  is  allowed  to 
strike  the  cold  ceiling,  it  condenses  again,  and  every  di-op  of  water  which  falls  upon 
the  paper  creates  a  wet  and  weak  spot,  causing  it  to  break,  or  leaving  a  mark  on  it. 
In  cold  weather  these  drops  may  become  so  numerous  that  it  is  nearly  impossible  to 
make  paper. 

Formerly  a  sort  of  chimney,  constructed  of  boards,  and  called  the  hat,  was 
used  to  carry  off"  the  steam  from  the  dryers,  and  can  yet  be  seen  in  many  mills.  Its 
lower  edges  extend  in  all  directions  beyond  the  space  occupied  by  the  drying-cylin- 
ders, and  its  sides  converge,  like  those  of  a  pyramid,  to  the  ceiling,  from  whence  they 
ascend  in  straight  lines  until  they  reach  the  open  air,  protected  by  a  roof  against  the 
rain.  The  steam  escapes  through  it ;  but  in  cold  or  damp  weather  some  of  it  con- 
denses on  the  insides  of  the  chimney,  which  may  have  been  cooled  by  the  free  com- 
munication with  the  air  from  above ;  and  numerous  contrivances,  such  as  spouts  along 
the  corners  and  edges,  and  felts  spread  across  the  open  space,  are  resorted  to  for  the 
interception  of  the  drops. 

In  modern  mills  no  additional  floor  is  allowed  above  the  machine-room  ;  the  roof, 
which  covers  it  directly,  being  lined  inside  with  flooring-boards.  The  surface  of  the 
ceiling  thus  formed  is  made  perfectly  smooth  with  several  coats  of  paint  and  varnish, 
which  prevent  the  drops  from  gathering  on  it.  All  the  joints  must  run  up  and  down  ; 
and  if  several  lengths  of  boards  are  required  on  a  side,  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
ends  should  not  meet  on  any  part  of  the  ceiling  above  the  machine,  as  the  drops  may 
stop  at  these  cross-joints  on  their  downward  flow  and  gradually  fall  off. 


J 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


195 


If  the  ceiling  is  very  steep  and  smooth,  the  water  runs  off  to  both  sides  on  it, 
and  gives  no  trouble. 

The  cumbrous  and  darkening  hat  is  at  present  rej)laced  by  a  set  of  windows, 
called  a  ventilator.  An  oblong  opening,  about  4  to  6  or  more  feet  wide  and  from  10 
to  20  feet  long,  is  cut  into  the  highest  part  of  the  roof  above  the  dryers,  and  covered 
with  a  second  roof,  about  4  to  6  feet  higher  up.  A  framework  around  the  sides  of 
the  opening  supports  this  upper  roof,  and  is  fitted  for  the  reception  of  a  number  of 
glass  windows  on  the  two  long  sides,  while  the  two  short  ends  are  boarded  up.  The 
windows  swing  on  hinges  or  pivots,  so  that  they  can  be  more  or  less  opened  or  shut 
by  the  pulling  of  a  chain  or  rope  from  the  floor  below. 

Whenever  the  wind  blows  strongly,  the  windows  on  the  side  from  which  it 
comes  should  be  shut  against  it,  and  the  steam  allowed  to  escape  through  those  on 
the  other  side. 

To  prevent,  in  cold  weather,  the  condensation  of  steam  on  the  ceiling,  a  series  of 
wrought-iron  steam  heating-pipes  may  be  suspended  near  it  above  the  machine. 

If  live  steam  is  used  for  this  purpose,  it  may  be  conducted  through  several 
lengths  of  1  to  2  inch  pipes,  above  and  parallel  with  the  machine,  then  through  large 
cast-iron  heating-pipes  on  the  floor,  to  escape  finally  in  condensed  form  into  a 
receiver,  which  contains  the  feed-water  for  the  boilers. 

If  the  escaped  steam  of  an  engine  is  available,  the  pipes  must  be  larger,  to  avoid 
contraction  and  the  back  pressure  which  inevitably  results  from  narrow  ones. 

These  pipes  heat  the  ceiling  and  keep  the  steam  in  vapor  form  until  it  escapes 
through  the  ventilator. 


196 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


(B)    CYLINDER    P  A  P  E  R  -  M  A  C  H  IN  B. 

169.  General  Construction. — This  machine  derives  its  name  from  the  wire-cloth- 
covered  cylinder,  which  performs  the  same  duties  as  the  wire  of  the  Fourdrinier 
machine. 

All  the  parts  which  compose  a  cylinder-machine,  except  the  making  or  forming- 
cylinder  and  the  first  press,  are  constructed  like  the  corresponding  parts  of  a 
Fourdrinier  machine. 

The  wet-machine  (see  Chapter  IV,  Section  IV),  represented  by  a  front  eleva- 
tion and  plan  in  Fig.  92  and  Fig.  93,  shows  the  screen,  making-cylinder,  and  wet- 
felt,  and  will  facilitate  the  explanation  of  the  working  of  a  cylinder-machine. 

The  shaft  of  the  making-cylinder  h  rests  at  both  ends  in  the  sides  of  the  wooden 
vat  I,  and  the  openings  made  by  its  bearings  are  covered  by  the  projecting  incase- 
ments      and  h^. 

The  vat  i  is  filled  with  diluted  pulj),  and  the  fibres  deposit  themselves  on  the 
wire-cloth,  which  covers  the  cylinder  h,  while  the  water  passes  through  it  and  is 
taken  off  by  the  fan-pump  k.  This  pump  is  constructed  like  those  used  with  Four- 
drinier machines,  and  bolted  directly  to  the  projecting  box      of  the  vat. 

The  end  of  the  cylinder  h,  on  the  front  side  near  h\  is  closed,  but  the  end  on 
the  driving-side  near  h"  is  quite  open ;  it  has  near  the  edge  a  concentric  projecting 
ring  (d  in  Fig.  94),  which  fits  into  a  like  aperture  in  the  side  of  the  vat.  The  con- 
nection of  the  fan-pump  k  with  the  box  must  be  low  enough  to  enable  the  water 
in  the  cylinder  h  to  flow  away  through  it. 

The  pulp  enters  into  the  partition  i'  over  the  lip  e  of  the  screen-vat,  and  flows 
from  there  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  to  the  cylinder  h. 

The  fan-pump  k  throws  the  waste- water  into  a  spout  k',  and  through  a  side 
channel  into  the  trough  i",  while  the  surplus  liquid  returns  to  the  screen,  after 
having  been  mixed  with  fresh  pulp  in  the  box  a\  The  quantity  of  this  water  which 
is  to  be  admitted  into     can  be  regulated  by  a  gate  between  k'^  and  i^. 

If  more  fresh  pulp  and  waste-water  are  delivered  in  the  vat  i  than  the  making- 
cylinder  can  take  up,  they  must  flow  over  the  latter  unless  another  outlet  is  provided. 
As  much  of  the  waste-water  in  the  trough  i'^,  as  may  be  superfluous,  is  therefore 
allowed  to  return  to  the  stuff'-chest  through  a  spout  h^,  and  over  an  upright  sliding- 
gate,  which  separates  from  i^,  and  by  its  higher  or  lower  position  regulates  the 
height  of  the  pulp  in  the  vat. 

The  bottom  of  is  perforated  by  numerous  holes,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  the 
waste-water  uniformly  with  the  pulp ;  but  if  these  openings  permit  the  passage  of 
too  much  water,  some  of  them  must  be  closed  with  wooden  plugs. 

A  second  trough,  similar  to  i^,  and  with  the  same  connections,  is  sometimes  put 
into  the  forward  end  of  the  vat,  for  the  purpose  of  additional  dilution. 


PAPEB  -  MA  CHINES. 


197 


The  bottom  of  the  vat  should  be,  as  much  as  possible,  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
making-cylinder,  to  prevent  any  deposits  from  the  pulp. 

The  cylinder  h  exercises  not  only  the  functions  of  the  wire,  but  also  those  of  the 
lower  couch-roll.  The  upper  couch-roll  l  rests  freely  on  it,  its  journals  being  sup- 
ported by  the  cast-iron  arms  m,  which  swing  loosely  on  the  studs  m'^  fastened  in 
elongations  of  the  press  frames. 

This  couch-roll  l  is  constructed  of  wood  bolted  on  iron  heads,  and  of  about  12 


Fig.  92. 


Fig.  93. 


to  18  inches  diameter ;  but  several  layers  of  felt  must  be  wrapped  around  it  to  give  it 
the  necessary  elasticity.  We  have  also  seen  the  surface  covered  with  sponge  tacked 
on  the  wood,  and  felt  put  over  it,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  it  uniform  in  this 
way. 

The  wet-felt  passes  around  the  coucher  l,  is  carried  by  the  rolls  n  n  and  stretch- 
roll  n\  and  supports  the  paper  on  its  way  through  the  press-rolls  p  and  p\  From 


198 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


the  wet-macliine,  represented  in  our  cuts,  the  paper  is  removed  in  a  wet  state,  after  it 
has  passed  the  first  press ;  but  in  a  regular  cylinder  paper-machine  the  wet-felt  is 
longer  than  in  our  drawing,  and  extends  under  the  second  press  in  the  same  way  as 
[see  Plate  II]  on  the  presses  of  a  Fourdrinier  machine. 

The  wet-felt  is  met  on  its  return  trip,  after  it  has  delivered  the  paper  to  the 
second  press,  by  the  fast-running  felt-washer  k.  It  has  been  soaked  with  water  from 
a  shower-pipe  just  before  reaching  it,  and  is  thus  constantly  washed.  The  surplus 
water  Avhich  it  may  contain  is  forced  from  it  by  the  succeeding  press-rolls  s. 

The  use  of  a  revolving-brush  on  the  part  of  the  cylinder  which  is  not  covered 
by  paper,  is  of  great  advantage.  The  stiff  bristles  projecting  from  a  wooden  cylinder 
are  forced  into  the  meshes  of  the  wire-cloth  by  the  weight  of  the  brush,  and  thus 
keep  it  free  and  clean  while  revolving  with  it. 

If  the  paper  is  not  wide  enough  to  occupy  the  whole  width  of  the  cylinder,  that 
part  of  the  surface  which  is  not  required  is  simply  covered  with  thin  but  strong  linen 
cloth. 

170.  Formation  of  the  Paper. — The  paper  is  formed  on  this  machine  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : 

The  pulp,  diluted  by  the  waste  water  admitted  through  trough  i'^,  is  spread  across 
the  whole  width  of  the  vat,  and  fills  it  to  the  height  of  the  overflow-gate,  which 
guards  the  entrance  to  the  spout  h^.  The  rim  of  one  of  the  heads  fits  into  the  side  of 
the  vat  and  runs  in  it,  while  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder  is  closed  by  a  solid  plate ; 
the  pulp  can  therefore  have  no  communication  with  its  interior  except  through  the 
meshes  of  the  wire-cloth.  The  water  pours  in  through  them,  and  is  removed  by  the 
fan-pump  k,  which  connects  with  the  inside,  while  the  fibres  adhere  to  the  wire  and 
form  a  web.  The  pressure  which  forces  the  water  through,  is  equal  to  the  difference 
in  height  of  the  pulp  outside  and  of  the  water  inside  of  the  cylinder.  The  upjDcr 
couch-roll  L  presses  water  out  of  the  paper  by  its  own  and  by  additional  weight,  which 
may  be  fastened  to  the  rod  m\  By  means  of  the  same  rod  m\  it  is  easy  at  any  time 
to  raise  the  upper  couch-roll  from  the  cylinder. 

As  soon  as  the  paper  comes  in  contact  with  the  wet- felt,  tinder  the  upper  couch- 
roll,  it  leaves  the  wire-cloth,  follows  the  felt  on  its  passage  through  the  first  press,  and 
is  then  conducted  through  the  second  press  and  to  the  dryers,  as  in  the  Fourdrinier 
machine. 

171.  Construction  of  the  Making- Cylinder. — The  most  important  part  of  this 
machine — the  making-cylinder — is  represented  in  Fig.  94  by  a  section,  and  partial 
views  of  the  heads  or  ends  and  of  the  spiders  are  shown  in  Figs.  95,  96,  and  97. 

A  (Fig.  95)  is  the  full  head  which  closes  the  front-side  end  of  the  cylinder ;  it  is 
made  of  brass,  and  consists  of  a  hub,  arms,  and  rim,  and  of  a  copper  plate,  which  is 
fastened  to  the  rim  with  screws. 

Numerous  brass  cast  spiders  b  b  (Fig.  97)  are  necessary  to  support  the  surface, 
so  that  it  cannot  yield  in  any  part  to  the  pressure  on  it. 

c  (Fig.  96)  is  the  open  end  of  the  cylinder,  the  rim  d  of  which  fits  into  an  open- 
ing of  the  same  size  in  the  side  of  the  vat. 


PAP  EE  -  MA  CHINES. 


199 


The  skeleton  frame,  which  supports  the  wire-cloth,  is  formed  of  a  large  number 
of  brass  rods  of  No.  3  {\  inch)  wire,  lying,  as  shown  in  section,  Fig.  94,  parallel 
with  the  shaft. 

The  diameter  of  the  spiders  b  b  is  |  inch  less  than  that  of  the  heads  a  and  c,  and 
a  half  circle  (Fig.  97)  is  cut  out  on  them  for  every  brass  rod,  serving  it  as  a  bearing. 
Full  circles  or  cylindric  holes  in  the  heads  correspond  with  these  half-circle  bearings 
on  the  spiders,  and  the  rims  of  a  and  c  are  large  enough  to  leave  a  distance  of  inch 
between  their  outside  circles  and  the  outside  edges  of  these  holes.  The  rims  of  a  and 
c  are  inch  thick,  and  the  holes  in  one  of  them  are  bored  clear  through,  while  they 
enter  in  the  other  only      inch  deep. 

All  these  holes  must  be  exactly  in  line ;  the  rods  are  introduced  through  one  of 
the  heads  passed  through  the  half  circles  on  the  spiders,  and  find  a  resting-place  in 
the  short  holes  of  the  other  head. 

Around  these  rods  is  wound  No.  16  ( y'g  inch)  copper  wire,  three  turns  for  every 

Pig.  95.  Pig.  94.  Fig.  96.  Pig.  97. 


inch  of  the  width  of  the  cylinder  (not  shown  in  the  section).  A  half  circle  of  ^'g  inch 
diameter  must  be  turned  into  the  brass  rods  as  a  seat  for  this  wire.  The  whole  cyl- 
inder skeleton  is  for  this  purpose  put  in  a  lathe,  where  the  half  circles  are  cut  out  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  copper  wire  fits  into  a  bearing  on  every  rod. 

The  wire  on  which  the  paper  is  formed  cannot  be  spread  directly  on  this  copper 
wire ;  it  requires  yet  another  support,  usually  a  No.  14  brass  wire-cloth,  which  is 
made  endless  by  a  seam,  and  slipped  on  the  cylinder  frame.  The  finer  making  wire- 
cloth  may  be  of  any  number  between  50  and  70,  or  more,  according  to  the  quality  of 
paper,  and  is  simply  slipped  over  the  coarse  one. 

172.  Merits  and  Demerits  of  the  Cylinder-Machine. — The  manner  of  construction 
of  the  cylinder,  and  its  connection  with  the  upper  couch-roll  and  wet-felt,  exclude 
the  possibility  of  its  being  shaken  sideways.  The  fibres  will  therefore  deposit  them- 
selves on  the  wire-cloth  only  in  the  direction  in  which  the  paper  moves,  that  is, 
lengthways.    Paper  made  on  a  cylinder  is  in  this  respect  inferior  to  that  made  on  a 


200  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 

Fourdrinier  wire,  which  being  shaken  sideways,  causes  the  fibres  to  intertwine  them- 
selves in  all  directions.  Cylinder  paper  has  all  its  strength  in  the  direction  in  which 
it  has  travelled  over  the  machine,  will  split  easily  lengthways  like  wood,  and  with 
more  difficulty  across  the  grain  or  fibres. 

The  direction  in  which  cylinder  paper  has  been  made,  can  always  be  easily 
found ;  it  is  the  one  in  which  it  splits  or  tears  most  readily. 

Since  it  is  impracticable  to  shake  the  cylinder,  several  improvements  have  been 
patented  by  which  the  fibres  can  be  shaken  laterally  before  they  deposit  themselves 
on  it. 

They  consist  principally  of  agitators,  with  screw-shaped  wings,  which  revolve 
rapidly  in  the  vat  close  to  the  cylinder. 

Though  they  cannot  make  the  paper  felt  itself  as  well  as  on  a  Fourdrinier  wire, 
these  agitators  are  yet  useful  and  frequently  applied. 

It  is  evident  from  the  construction  of  the  cylinder-machine,  that  it  is  much 
cheaper,  and  that  its  management  requires  less  skill  than  that  of  a  Fourdrinier  ma- 
chine. The  latter  also  uses  up  deckels,  jackets,  more  and  longer  wires,  and  more  power. 

The  cylinder  machine  furnishes  an  inferior  paper,  but  it  can  be  operated  at  so 
much  less  expense  that  it  should  be  used  for  all  those  grades  in  which  the  superiority 
of  Fourdrinier  paper  is  not  recognized  by  a  comparatively  higher  price. 

Nearly  all  our  coarse  wrapping  and  even  a  great  deal  of  news-print  and  book 
paper  is  made  on  cylinder  machines. 

173.  Combination  of  Several  Cylinders. — The  diameter  and  consequently  the  wire 
surface  of  a  making-cylinder  is  very  limited,  and  the  pressure  of  the  puljD  in  the  vat 
is  the  only  means  by  which  the  water  can  be  forced  from  it. 

Very  heavy  sheets  cannot,  therefore,  be  made  on  this  machine,  but  if  the  paper 
from  two  or  more  cylinders  is  united  on  one  wet  felt,  it  will,  after  having  passed  the 
presses  and  dryers  together,  form  a  solid  web. 

Two  making-cylinders  are  for  this  purpose  placed  in  one  vat,  and  the  wet  felt 
must  be  long  enough  to  envelop  both  couch-rolls. 

The  paper  from  the  second  cylinder  follows  the  felt  until  it  meets  the  paper  on 
the  first  one,  and  from  there  the  double  web  travels  as  one  to  the  presses. 

A  pipe  or  spout  connects  the  cylinders  with  one  fan-pump,  which  serves  for  both. 

These  double  cylinders  are  largely  used  for  card,  collar,  heavy  Manilla,  such  as 
bag-paper,  and  many  other  kinds. 

Paper,  the  two  sides  of  which  are  of  different  colors  or  qualities,  can  be  made 
by  giving  a  separate  vat  to  each  cylinder,  and  supplying  them  with  different  pulp. 

Three  and  more,  up  to  six,  cylinders  have  been  combined  in  one  machine  for 
the  manufacture  of  heavy  boards.  The  number  of  drying-cylinders  must  be  increased 
in  the  same  j)roportion,  and  as  many  as  16  to  20  dryers,  of  3  feet  diameter,  may  be 
seen  in  some  of  these  machines. 

Combinations  of  more  than  two  or  three  cylinders  have,  however,  not  been  suc- 
cessful, and  have  in  some  mills  been  replaced  by  Fourdrinier  wires. 


PAPER  -  MA  CHINES. 


201 


{C)    HARPER'S    IMPROVED    P  A  P  E  R  -  M  A  C  H I N  E. 

174.  Construction. — Mr.  James  Harper,  paper  manufacturer,  near  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  has  jiatented  and  constructed  a  combination  of  tlie  Fourdrinier  wire  and  of  the 
cyL'nder-machine,  represented  in  Fig.  98. 

The  wire-cloth  b  is,  as  usual,  supplied  with  a  breast-roll  f,  deckels  c,  suction- 
box  L,  and  apron  m  ;  but  the  lower  coucher  e  is  an  open  forming-cylinder,  on  which 
the  Fourdrinier  wire  b  is  substituted  for  the  fixed  wire-cloth.  The  upper  coucher  h 
rests  on  levers  k,  which  turn  round  the  points  a  of  the  frame  a.    The  wet-felt  g 


Fig.  98. 


passes  around  the  upper  coucher  h  over  the  felt-rolls  i  to  the  first  press,  and  carries 
the  paper  to  the  forward  end  of  the  second  press.  Returning,  it  is  washed,  like  the 
wet-felt  of  a  cylinder-machine,  by  the  felt-washer  n,  and  pressed  out  between  a  pair 
of  small  rolls  immediately  afterwards. 

The  sand-tables  and  screens  are  separate  from  the  machine,  and  may  be  located 
below  the  floor,  and  the  pulp  delivered  on  the  apron  m  and  within  the  sides  d  by  a 
fan-pump. 

26 


202 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


175.  Advantages  over  other  Machines. — The  advantages  claimed  for  this  ma- 
chine are : 

That  the  paper  passes  from  the  wire  to  the  wet-felt  without  assistance,  and 
that  the  losses  of  pulp,  which  on  Fourdrinier  machines  occur  in  this  place, 
are  avoided ; 

That  thick  paper  cannot  be  crushed  by  the  couchers ;  and  that  the  thinnest 
paper,  which  cannot  be  taken  from  the  coucher  of  a  Fourdrinier  wire  to  the 
wet-felt,  can  be  made  on  this  machine ; 

That  no  water  is  required  for  shower-pipes,  as  none  are  used ; 
That  the  felt  is  constantly  washed  and  kept  clean ; 
And  that  there  is  a  great  saving  in  wires  and  felts. 
The  length  of  the  wet-felt  is  reduced  as  much  as  possible  by  the  use  of  a  short 
wire ;  and  the  inventor  claims  that  this  short  wire  is  as  effective  as  a  longer  one,  if 
supported  by  the  same  number  of  tube-rolls. 

Notwithstanding  the  use  of  a  short-wire,  the  wet-felt  is  yet  very  long  and  costly. 
Seven  of  these  machines  have  been  built,  besides  the  one  which  is  in  operation 
at  Messrs.  Harper  &  Brother's  mill ;  but  several  have,  as  we  were  informed,  been 
abandoned  again,  because  the  expense  caused  by  the  frequent  renewal  of  wet-felts  was 
too  large. 

Experience  is  required  for  the  management  of  any  new  machine,  and  many 
difficulties  which  are  at  first  encountered  will  be  overcome  in  time  by  skill  and  per- 
severance. The  advantages,  which  this  machine  seems  to  offer  over  the  cylinder  or 
Fourdrinier  machine,  should  at  least  secure  for  it  a  fair  trial  on  the  part  of  manu- 
facturers. 


SIZING  m  THE  WEB,  OB  SUBFACE- SIZING. 


203 


SECTION  VI. 
Sizing  in  the  Web,  oe  Surface-Sizing. 

176.  Preparation  of  the  Size. — Nearly  all  the  paper  which  is  used  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States  for  writing  purposes,  especially  for  letters,  is  coated  with 
animal  size  or  glue,  in  the  same  manner  as  hand-made  paper. 

The  size  is  prepared  substantially  as  it  was  many  years  ago,  but  it  is  at  present 
applied  to  the  paper  on  the  machine,  and  the  labor  of  handling  the  sheets  has,  by 
ingenious  mechanisms,  been  reduced  so  much  that  it  cannot  be  considered  a  serious 
objection,  if  compared  with  the  advantages  which  this  system  of  sizing  has  over  all 
others. 

Most  manufacturers  make  their  own  size,  in  a  room  adjoining  the  machine,  or 
below  the  machine-room,  if  the  latter  is  situated  on  the  second  floor. 

The  gelatine  or  glue  which  forms  the  basis  of  this  size  is  found  in  the  muscular 
fibres,  skins,  ligaments,  cartilages,  tendons,  and  membranes  of  animals,  and  it  consti- 
tutes about  half  the  weight  of  the  bones. 

It  is  heavier  than  water,  without  taste,  smell,  color,  and  neither  acid  nor 
alkaline.  It  is  very  soluble  in  boiling,  but  only  sparingly  so  in  cold  water.  When 
two  parts  and  a  half  are  dissolved  in  a  hundred  parts  of  water,  the  liquid  congeals  on 
cooling.  The  jelly  sours  in  a  few  days,  especially  in  summer ;  it  then  liquefies,  and 
before  long  exhibits  all  the  phenomena  of  putrid  fermentation.  Clippings  of  hides, 
parchment,  gloves,  and  scrolls,  or  parts  of  the  hoofs  and  ears  of  oxen,  horses,  sheep, 
and  calves,  are  the  raw  material  from  which  it  is  extracted  by  paper-makers. 

Nothing  but  the  best  of  hide-clippings  ^re  used  for  No.  1  letter-jjaper,  but 
cheaper  qualities  may  be  used  for  the  lower  grades.  They  are  first  softened  by  soak- 
ing during  several  days  in  large  wooden  tubs  filled  with  water,  and  then  put  into  a 
wooden  cylinder  of  from  4  to  6  feet  diameter  and  about  10  feet  length,  which  revolves 
on  a  horizontal  shaft.  Its  surface  is  composed  of  boards  perforated  with  numerous 
holes,  one  of  which  is  fastened  with  hinges  and  serves  as  a  door  for  filling  and  empty- 
ing. This  washing-machine  is  immersed  in  a  trough  up  to  the  centre,  and  receives 
a  revolving  motion  from  a  pulley  outside ;  a  stream  of  fresh  water  enters  constantly 
through  holes  in  the  hollow  shaft,  while  the  dirty  water  escapes  through  those  in  the 
surface. 

The  clippings,  thus  cleaned,  are  put  into  a  tub  of  about  6  to  8  feet  diameter,  made 
of  wood,  or  rather  of  galvanized  iron,  which  should  be  provided  with  a  false,  per- 
forated bottom.  Steam  is  introduced  below  this  false  bottom,  through  a  coil-pipe 
with  numerous  holes,  and  thus  prevented  from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the 


204  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAOS  BY  MACHINERY. 


clippings.  The  water  is  never  allowed  to  boil,  but  to  reach  only  from  180  to  190  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  and  kept  at  that  temperature  for  some  time  (12  to  18  hours).  The 
solution  of  gelatine  thus  obtained  is  drawn  off  into  wooden  tubs,  which  serve  as  re- 
ceivers, and  must  be  situated  beneath  the  one  in  which  the  extracts  are  made. 

As  the  liquid  may  contain  pieces  of  hide  or  scrolls  and  impurities,  it  is  advisable 
to  strain  it  while  leaving  the  tub  in  which  it  was  prepared. 

A  box,  about  8  to  12  inches  square,  is  usually  fastened  in  the  latter  for  this 
purpose;  it  stands  either  upright,  attached  to  the  side,  or  better,  lays  flat  on  the 
solid  bottom,  protruding  above  the  false  one.  This  box  is  perforated  all  over  and 
filled  with  clean  rye-straw,  through  which  the  liquid  filters  into  a  pipe,  which  con- 
ducts it  to  the  receiving-tubs ;  but,  before  emptying  into  them,  it  is  filtered  a  second 
time  through  a  flannel  bag  tied  to  the  outlet  of  the  pipe. 

An  experienced  paper-maker  and  close  observer  has  found  that  the  solution 
takes  up  some  of  the  color  of  the  rye-straw  while  filtering  through  it,  and  he  sub- 
stitutes gingham-cloth  instead. 

Two  or  three  and  even  four  extracts  are  made  of  one  lot  of  clippings,  and  it  is 
therefore  impossible  to  prescribe  either  the  quantity  of  water  which  should  be  used 
with  a  certain  weight  of  the  raw  material,  or  the  time  for  a  solution.  It  matters  little 
how  it  is  done,  provided  that  all  the  gelatine  contained  in  the  clippings  is  extracted 
in  good  condition  and  well  strained. 

The  various  solutions  are  mixed  together  in  the  receiving-tubs,  and  there  receive 
an  addition  of  enough  alum  to  be  recognized  by  tasting  the  liquid.  The  object  of  the 
addition  of  alum  is  principally  to  prevent  fermentation  or  decomposition  of  the  gela- 
tine, and  as  this  takes  place  easier  as  the  temperature  is  higher,  the  proportion  of 
alum  should  be  larger  in  summer  than  in  winter.  As  the  solutions  cool  off  in  the 
receiving-tubs,  they  solidify,  acquire  a  gelatinous  consistency,  and  are  then  ready 
for  use. 

According  to  the  quality  of  the  material,  about  10  to  20  pounds  of  clippings  or 
scrolls  are  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  a  sufiicient  quantity  of  animal  size  where- 
with to  coat  the  paper  made  from  100  pounds  of  rags. 

The  following  proportions  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  a  very  good  No.  2 
flat-cap  paper  in  one  of  the  best  mills  in  this  country : 

Fourteen  pounds  of  No.  2  clippings  or  scrolls  per  100  pounds  of  rags  are  soaked 
in  water  during  three  days,  then  washed  as  described.  Thirty-six  hours  are  con- 
sumed in  making  only  two  extracts  of  this  material,  which  are  strained  and  emptied 
into  tubs. 

The  best  clippings  contain  so  much  gelatine,  and  can  be  so  thoroughly  dissolved, 
that  hardly  five  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  is  left  after  the  extracts  have  been  made. 

The.  gelatine  in  the  receivers  is  dissolved  in  a  tub  provided  with  a  steam-pipe, 
as  it  may  be  required  on  the  machine.  The  water  should  be  only  lukewarm,  and  the 
quantity  used  is  ordinarily  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  volume  of  the  gelatine, 
but  it  must  be  regulated  to  suit  the  stuff  and  the  weight  of  the  paper :  weak  fibres 


% 


SIZING  IN  THE  WEB,  OB  SURFACE- SIZING.  205 

and  thin  paper  requiring  a  more  concentrated  solution  than  strong  fibres  and  heavy 
paper.  A  hundred  pounds  of  light  paper  may  have  twice  as  much  surface  as  the 
same  weight  of  heavy  paper,  and  certainly  need  more  sizing  material. 

A  pumj),  which  stops  and  starts  with  the  machine,  forces  this  solution  into  a 
small  receiver  on  the  driving-side  of  the  machine,  which  in  its  turn  supplies  the 
trough  wherein  the  paper  is  soaked  with  it.  As  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  solution 
at  the  same  height  in  the  trough  and  receiver,  an  overflow  is  attached  to  the  latter, 
through  which  the  surplus  returns  to  the  tub  from  which  it  was  taken. 

The  preparation  of  this  size,  though  it  seems  simple  enough,  requires  experience 
and  judgment ;  especially  must  the  raw  material  be  carefully  selected.  No  pieces 
which  are  in  a  state  of  fermentation  or  partly  decomposed  should  be  allowed  to  be 
mixed  in  with  it,  as  they  may  start  putrefaction  in  the  size.  If  the  clippings  or 
scrolls  are  very  large,  they  must  be  reduced  to  convenient  sizes. 

Ready-made  glue  in  tablets  is  usually  too  expensive,  as  the  paper-maker  has  to 
pay  not  only  the  cost  of  the  material  and  manufacture,  but  also  of  the  fuel  and  labor 
which  were  required  to  reduce  the  gelatinous  liquid  to  dry  glue.  By  making  the 
extracts  himself,  not  only  is  money  saved,  but  he  also  knows  exactly  what  material 
his  size  is  made  of ;  while  even  a  poor  article  may  be  sold  to  him  transformed  into 
dry  tablets. 

177.  Application  of  the  Solution. — The  pulp  or  paper  which  is  to  be  coated  with 
animal  size  may  have  been  previously  sized  in  the  engines ;  it  is  run  over  Fourdrinier 
machines,  which,  preceding  the  last  drying-cylinder,  differ  in  no  respect  from  those 


Fig.  99. 


described.  A  front  elevation  of  this  last  dryer  and  the  succeeding  parts  of  the 
machine  are  represented  in  Fig.  99. 

The  drawing  is  taken  from  a  machine  built  by  Messrs.  Rice,  Barton  &  Fales,  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  in  operation  at  the  Holyoke  Paper  Company's  mill, 
Holyoke,  Mass. 

The  course  of  the  paper  is  indicated  by  arrows.    After  it  has  left  the  dryers,  it 


* 


206  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAP  EE  FROM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 

passes  directly  through  the  slitters  a  a,  which  are  fastened  on  an  extension  of  the 
wire-frame.  It  is  carried  on  the  rolls  a^  a\  and  kept  in  a  state  of  tension  by  the 
Weight  of  the  roll  b,  which  is  fastened  to  two  levers  turning  around  b',  and  simply 
rests  on  the  paper. 

The  bearings  of  the  roll  d,  which  the  web  next  reaches,  are  fastened  on  the  size- 
tub  or  trough  c.  A  press,  consisting  of  a  brass-covered  iron  roll  f  on  top  of  a  large 
wooden  roll  e,  rests  on  the  same  frames  as  c,  the  roll  e  being  immersed  to  some  depth 
in  the  solution  contained  in  c.  The  roll  r  is  also  supplied  with  a  doctor  and  with 
pressure-screws . 

Fig.  100. 


The  size-liquid  is  supjilied  from  a  receiver  on  the  driving-side  of  the  machine, 
and  kept  all  the  time  at  the  same  height  in  c.  The  paper  becomes  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated and  covered  with  it  on  its  passage  from  the  roll  d  to  e  through  the  trough 
c,  and  is  again  relieved  from  all  superfluous  solution  (which  returns  into  c)  by  the 
upper  roll  f. 

On  leaving  this  press,  the  pores  of  the  paper  should  be  well  filled  with  size,  but 
the  surface  should  only  be  moist — not  wet. 

On  the  way  to  the  cutter  i,  the  paper  is  supported  by  the  roll  g  and  the  angle- 


SIZING  IN  THE  WEB,  OB  SURFACE- SIZING. 


207 


roll  H.  The  latter  is  fastened  on  a  plank  which  extends  across  the  machine,  and  ie 
composed  of  two  rolls  of  half  the  length  of  a  full-sized  paper-roll,  meeting  under  an 
angle,  the  point  of  which  is  turned  towards  the  cutter.  This  angle-roll  h  keeps  the 
paper  stretched  and  prevents  wrinkles,  by  pushing  it  from  the  middle  to  both  sides. 

The  continuous  feed-cutter  i  is  of  the  kind  represented  in  Figs.  76  and  77.  It 
has  been  selected  because  it  runs  without  stops  and  starts,  and  delivers  at  all  times  a 
certain  length  of  paper.  If  the  sheets  are  not  exactly  of  the  same  length,  this  is  of 
little  importance,  as  they  have  to  be  again  trimmed  after  coming  from  the  drying  loft. 

178.  Kneeland's  Lay-Boy. — The  lay-boy  k,  on  which  the  cut  sheets  are  deposited, 


Fig.  101. 


M3 


is  an  ingenious  machine,  invented  and  patented  by  T.  C.  Kneeland,  of  Northamp- 
ton, Mass.,  and  deserves  a  full  description. 

Fig.  100  is  a  view  of  this  lay-boy  from  the  front  side  of  the  machine,  without 
the  frame  on  that  side. 

Fig.  101  is  a  view  square  across,  as  seen  from  the  forward  end. 

Figs.  102,  103,  and  104  are  details  which  will  be  explained ;  the  letters,  desig- 
nating their  parts,  correspond  with  the  same  letters  of  Figs.  100  and  101. 

Two  double  leather  belts  a  a,  2^  inches  \Yide  and  i  inch  thick,  are  running  over 


208 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


the  rolls  a^  a*.  The  rolls  a*  are  driven  from  the  shaft  of  the  revolving  cutter- 
knife  by  means  of  four  spur-wheels  b  b^  b^,  and  carry  on  their  face  a  row  of 
wrought-iron  pins  2|  inches  apart,  which  correspond  with  holes  of  the  same  size  and 
equally  far  apart  in  the  belts  a.  These  pins  fill  the  corresponding  holes  of  the  belts 
while  passing  over  or  resting  on  a*,  and  thus  prevent  them  from  slipping  or  changing 
their  positions  in  any  way,  except  when  moved  by  the  revolutions  of  the  pulleys  a*. 
The  web  of  paper  descends  through  the  cutter  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the 
arrow ;  it  passes  in  front  of  the  horizontal  bed-knife  c^,  over  the  wooden  guide-board 
c\  and  hangs  down  from  there  in  a  perpendicular  line.  In  our  drawing,  the  length 
of  one  sheet  has  just  passed  the  bed-knife  and  the  revolving-knife  c  is  in  the  act 
of  cutting  it  off.  The  relative  speeds  and  positions  of  the  revolving-knife  c  and  pul- 
leys A*  are  so  arranged  that  at  the  moment  when  a  sheet  is  cut  off,  one  of  the  rolls  d 
has  already  struck  it,  the  sheet  folds  over  the  roll  and  is  carried  along  by  it.  These 
wooden  rolls  d  rest  in  bearings,  which  are  riveted  to  the  belts  a,  as  shown  on  an 
enlarged  scale  in  Fig.  102,  and  every  following  one  reaches  the  position  of  the  pre- 
ceding one  when  the  revolving-knife  c  has  comj)leted  one  revolution.  The  belts  a 
with  their  ten  rolls  d  make,  therefore,  one  revolution  while  the  knife  c  makes  ten.  If 
the  relative  positions  of  the  rolls  d  and  of  the  revolving-knife  c  are  not  so  that  they 
strike  the  sheet  at  the  right  time,  one  of  the  spur-wheels  b^  or  b^  is  removed,  the 
pulley  A*  turned  into  the  desired  position,  and  the  spur-wheel  inserted  again. 

The  sheets  would  leave  the  rolls  d,  over  which  they  are  folded,  and  drop  on  the 
floor  if  they  were  unsupported  while  they  are  carried  forward.  The  first  of  their  sup- 
ports is  the  wooden  roll  ;  its  bearings  are  fastened  in  the  frames  e"^,  and  it  is  easily 
turned  by  the  friction  of  the  moving  sheets.  It  is  succeeded  by  flat  pieces  of  wood 
e',  extending  also  from  one  side  of  the  machine  to  the  other,  and  resting  in  the  open 
bearings  e,  which  form  part  of  a  flat  casting  bolted  to  the  stands  e^,  or,  to  speak  cor- 
rectly, to  the  pieces  e*  (see  Fig.  102).  All  of  these  bearings  e  are  never  filled  at 
one  time,  as  a  few  wooden  cross-pieces  e^  are  sufficient. 

Two  brackets  f\  fastened  to  the  stands  e^,  carry  an  iron  rod  f,  on  which  strips  of 
felt,  1|  to  2  inches  wide,  18  inches  long,  and  6  inches  apart,  are  suspended.  These 
strips  rest  on  the  upper  side  of  the  sheets,  while  they  are  carried  along  on  the  rolls  d, 
and  assist  in  holding  them  flat  in  their  j^lace. 

The  construction  of  the  heads  of  the  rolls  d  is  shown  on  an  enlarged  scale  in 
Fig-  102,  and  side  views  are  separately  shown  alongside  of  each  head.  These  heads 
are  of  iron,  and  have  a  perfectly  square  part  next  to  the  journal.  As  soon  as  the 
rolls  D  reach  the  frames  e,  their  square  ends  meet  the  corresponding  flat  strips  d^, 
which  rest  on  flat  pieces  of  wood  e*,  supported  by  the  iron  angles  eI 

The  square  heads  slide  on  those  strips,  preventing  the  rolls  d  from  turning, 
until  they  reach,  at  about  the  middle  of  the  frame,  the  rack  g.  Only  one  side  of  the 
machine  is  supplied  with  such  a  rack,  bolted  to  e*,  and  a  casting  of  exactly  the 
same  dimensions,  with  a  smooth  top  in  place  of  the  cogs  of  the  rack,  occupies  the  cor- 
responding place  on  the  other  side.  • 


SIZING  m  THE  WEB,  OB  SURFACE- SIZING. 


209 


A  spur-wheel  forms  part  of  the  head  of  the  roll  d  at  one  end,  and  a  smooth 
cylinder  g^,  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  pitch-line  of  g',  adjoins  d'  at  the  other  end. 
The  top  of  G  and  g^  is  slightly  elevated  above  jf  jy',  and,  as  soon  as  the  spur-wheel  g^ 
and  cylinder  g^  meet  g  and  g^,  they  mount  upon  them,  and  the  square  parts  d\  which 
have  so  far  supported  the  roll,  hang  clear  above  d^,  and  leave  the  roll  d  free  to 
revolve. 

The  lower  part  of  the  sheet,  on  leaving  the  supporting  pieces  e^,  drops  down  on 
the  pile  of  paper  h,  and  the  upper  part  is  rolled  off  from  d,  while  the  spur-wheel  g^ 
turns  on  the  rack  g. 

After  the  roll  d  has  passed  the  rack  g,  its  work  is  done,  and  it  proceeds,  sup- 
ported only  by  the  belts. 

The  upper  part  of  the  sheet  folded  over  the  roll  d  is  always  of  the  same  length, 
independently  of  the  size  of  the  paper ;  it  is  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  bed- 
knife  c'^  and  the  point  where  the  roll  d  strikes  it.  That  distance  gives  therefore  the 
length  of  the  rack  g,  but  the  latter  can  be  shifted  on  e^*  to  suit  the  varying  lengths  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  sheet. 

The  paper  is  thus  deposited  in  piles  h  on  the  loose  boards  h\  which  rest  on  the 
wagon  I. 

The  wooden  table,  or  top     is  bolted  to  castings     on  each  side,  moved  up  and 


down  by  the  screws  k,  and  guided  by  the  bolts  f.  The  bevel-wheels  and  inside 
of  the  wagon  i,  turn  the  screws  k,  and  are  themselves  set  in  motion  by  the  shaft 
which  extends  beyond  the  frame  e^  on  the  driving  side.  The  short  shaft  mounted 
on  the  bracket  which  is  bolted  to  the  frame,  carries,  besides  the  ratchet-wheel  m,  a 
splir-wheel  l\  which  moves  another  one  l,  on  the  end  of  shaft  k^,  and  through  the 
gearing  already  described-^the  platform  i\ 

The  principal  shaft,  which  carries  the  pulleys  A*,  moves  alsOj  by  means  of  the 
spur-wheels  n,  n\  and  the  crank-plate  m',  and  with  it  the  ratchet  and  the 
ratchet-wheel  m. 

The  crank-plate  m  is  shown  on  an  enlarged  scale  in  front  and  side  view  by  Figs. 
103  and  104. 

The  crank-pin  o,  which  supports  and  moves  the  ratchet  m',  can  be  shifted  in 
and  out  on  the  two  screws  p  p  by  turning  both  of  them,  and  thus  can  the  stroke  of 
the  ratchet,  and  with  it,  the  speed  of  the  spur-wheels  l  and  l\  screws  k  k,  and  of 
the  downward  movement  of  the  platform  i\  be  increased  or  decreased.    This  is 

27 


210 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


necessary  to  suit  the  different  thicknesses  of  the  sheets,  and  it  can  be  regulated  so 
that  the  top  of  the  pile  of  paper  h,  remains  always  closely  under  the  rolls  d,  which 
deliver  the  paper. 

When  the  platform  has  reached  the  lowest  possible  point,  or  the  pile  of  paper 
H,  has  reached  its  utmost  height,  the  wagon  which  runs  upon  four  rolls  r  is  pulled 
out  from  under  the  machine  on  the  wooden  rails  r\  Before  the  wagon  is  withdrawn, 
another  platform  must  be  provided,  which  may  take  its  place  for  the  reception  of  the 
sheets. 

Jron  rods  are  for  this  purpose  laid  into  the  two  sets  of  brackets  s,  which  are 
fastened  to  the  frames ;  they  support  loose  boards  which  form  a  table  above  the  pile 
of  paper  h. 

The  wagon  being  run  out,  two  men  lift  the  boards  h',  with  the  pile  of  paper  h, 
from  the  j^latform  on  to  a  truck,  and  forward  it  to  an  elevator  or  to  any  part  of 
the  mill. 

The  empty  wagon  is  returned  to  its  place,  the  ratchet  m'  put  out  of  gear,  and  the 
ratchet-wheel  m  turned  back  by  means  of  the  handle  m^.  A  flat  jjiece  of  iron  m*, 
fastened  on  l",  has  a  fork  at  its  upper  end,  and  the  ratchet  hangs  between  its  two 
prongs ;  while  inactive  or  out  of  gear,  m'  is  held  suspended  above  m  by  resting  on  a 
pin,  which  has  been  put  through  two  opposite  holes  in  the  prongs  for  this  purpose. 

By  turning  the  wheel  m  backwards,  the  platform  is  raised  up  until  it  reaches 
the  loose  boards,  on  which  the  sheets  have  been  dropped  during  its  absence.  These 
boards  are  thus  lifted  off  from  the  rods  resting  in  s ;  the  latter  are  removed,  the 
ratchet  m'  returns  to  its  duties,  and  the  platform  or  top  i'  begins  to  descend  again. 

179.  Construction  and  Management  of  Drying-Lofts. — The  trucks  loaded  with 
paper  are  usually  taken  to  the  bolster  and  forwarded  to  the  drying-loft. 

These  drying-lofts  occupy  the  upper  part  of  the  building  next  to  the  roof,  and  are 
constructed  on  the  same  principles  as  those  in  which  hand-made  jDaper  used  to  be  dried. 

The  paper  is  there  exposed  to  the  air  until  all  the  water  contained  in  the  size, 
with  which  it  is  impregnated,  has  been  evaporated,  and  the  remaining  gelatine  forms 
a  hard  coating. 

This  method  is  well  known  to  our  old  paper-makers,  and  we  shall  content  our- 
selves with  a  description  of  it  as  practiced  in  the  New  England  letter-paper  mills. 

Light  wooden  framework,  the  posts  of  which  are  fastened  to  the  floor  and  ceiling, 
extends  in  parallel  rows  all  along  the  room.  It  serves  as  a  support  to  wooden  poles 
in  horizontal  rows,  which,  with  the  paper  hanging  over  them,  fill  up  all  the  available 
space  from  floor  to  ceiling,  leaving  only  room  for  the  circulation  of  the  air.  A  jDassage 
around  these  frames  is  usually  left  along  the  outside  walls  of  the  building,  giving 
access  at  the  same  time  to  the  windows  and  shutters. 

The  paper  is  taken  from  the  truck,  with  the  boards  on  which  it  rests,  and  placed 
on  a  small  table.  A  workman  then  takes,  without  counting,  a  package  of  about  seven 
sheets  from  the  pile,  and  folds  it  in  the  middle  of  its  long  sides  over  the  cross-piece 
of  a  wooden  T-shaped  tool,  resembling  a  rake  without  teeth.   With  this  tool  he  raises 


SIZING  IN  THE  WEB,  OB  SURFACE- SIZING. 


211 


the  package  of  paper  or  spu7'  above  one  of  the  poles  in  such  a  way  that  the  sheets 
remain  hanging  on  it  when  the  lifter  is  withdrawn. 

It  is  evidently  desirable  that  the  poles  or  trihbles,  which  are  made  of  wood, 
about  1\  to  1\  inches  square,  should  not  offer  any  sharp  corners  to  the  paper  which 
is  suspended  on  them. 

The  two  upper  corners  are  therefore  usually  rounded  off,  or  the  whole  top  is 
made  round,  while  the  bottoms  remain  flat  and  retain  their  corners. 

The  poles  must  also  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  as  there  may  be  some  coloring 
substance  in  the  wood,  which,  in  course  of  time,  might  be  extracted  by  the  moisture 
of  the  paper,  and  thus  taint  it,  they  are  in  some  mills,  where  superfine  letter-paper  is 
made,  covered  with  a  coat  of  white  paint. 

Rooms  with  high  ceilings  are  inconvenient  for  this  purpose,  because  the  upper 
row  of  poles  can  only  be  reached  with  difficulty ;  high  lofts  are  therefore  mostly 
divided  into  two  stories. 

The  paper  is  left  on  the  poles  until  dry,  and^  at  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  70 
degrees  Fahrenheit ;  the  drying  takes  from  three  to  four  days.  To  produce  this  tem- 
perature artificially,  whenever  the  atmosphere  is  too  cold,  wrought-iron  steam-pipes 
are  laid  on  or  near  the  floor,  along  all  the  framework  on  which  the  poles  rest.  If 
the  pipes  are  not  very  large  (1  inch  to  1^  inch),  several  lengths  are  required  for 
every  frame,  and  they  make  up  a  large  amount  for  the  whole  drying-room.  One 
stream  of  fresh  steam  only  should  be  admitted  at  the  highest  point  of  the  system  of 
pipes,  and  the  latter  should  be  connected  with  each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  lead 
the  condensed  steam  to  the  lowest  point,  and  back  into  the  boiler. 

It  is  also  necessary  that  the  air,  which  has  become  loaded  with  moisture,  should 
escape  and  be  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply.  Hot  air  is  capable  of  holding  more  water 
in  suspension  than  cold  air,  and  as  it  is  also  lighter  it  ascends  to  the  top  of  the  dry- 
ing-rooms, and  should  be  taken  out  from  there  while  the  fresh  supply  enters  near 
the  floor. 

We  have  seen  mills,  where  ordinary  windows  and  shutters  serve  for  both  the 
ingress  and  egress  of  the  air,  and  in  many  others  they  constitute  the  only  openings  for 
the  admission  of  fresh  air.  A  system  of  registers,  through  which  the  air  would  enter 
constantly,  all  round  and  near  the  bottom  of  the  loft,  would  be  preferable  to  the  irreg- 
ular streams,  which  are  at  long  intervals  admitted  through  windows. 

Pipes  or  cylinders,  from  8  to  12  inches  wide,  of  galvanized  iron,  which  serve  as 
ventilators,  are  mounted  on  the  roofs  above  the  drying-rooms  of  modern  mills,  They 
are  supplied  with  dampers,  which  can  be  opened  or  closed  from  the  floor  below  by 
means  of  chains  or  ropes,  and  surmounted  by  galvanized-iron  hats,  which  keep  out 
the  rain. 

If  these  chimneys  are  well  distributed  over  the  drying-loft,  if  the  admission  and 
discharge  of  air  are  well  regulated,  and  if,  by  the  aid  of  steam,  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture is  constantly  kept  up,  the  paper  will  be  found  to  be  uniformly  dried  when  taken 
from  the  poles. 


212 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


In  saying  this,  we  suppose  that  the  paper  has  been  uniformly  soaked  with  the 
gelatinous  solution.  If  it  should  have  left  the  dryers  in  a  damp  or  in  an  overheated 
state,  it  would  absorb  either  too  much  or  too  little  solution  in  the  sizing-vat,  and 
return  insufficiently  or  too  much  sized  from  the  drying-room. 

The  gelatinous  solution  impregnates  the  whole  mass  of  the  paper,  though  it  is 
intended  to  cover  only  the  surfaces  with  it.  The  water  in  evaporating  is  transformed 
into  vapor  or  steam,  carries  with  it  the  gelatine  which  it  held  in  solution,  and  deposits 
it  on  the  surface.  But  this  can  only  be  done  if  the  drying-process  is  carried  on 
slowly,  at  a  low  temperature;  if  the  paper  is  strongly  heated,  the  water  or  steam  departs 
so  fast  that  it  cannot  carry  the  gelatine  along,  it  becomes  solid  between  the  fibres, 
and  the  paper  will  be  brittle  and  poorly  sized. 

This  difficulty  is  in  a  measure  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  larger  proportion  of  size. 
The  faster  the  paper  is  dried  the  heavier  must  it  be  loaded  with  gelatine,  to  have 
enough  for  both,  body  and  surface. 

The  paper,  when  taken  from  the  poles,  is  bent  in  the  middle,  where  it  was  folded 
over  them. 

It  is  therefore  smoothed  or  joged  out  on  a  table,  and  all  defective  sheets  which 
are  found  during  this  operation  are  taken  out. 

After  the  joffer  has  straightened  the  paper  as  well  as  possible  by  hand,  it  is  piled 
up  again,  and  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a  hydraulic  or  screw-press,  where  it  becomes 
sufficiently  smooth  to  be  fed  to  the  sheet  calenders  and  other  finishing  machines, 
which  will  be  described  in  a  subsequent  section. 

In  former  times  every  sheet  of  writing-paper  had  to  be  dried  twice  in  the  lofts, 
once  before  and  once  after  sizing,  but  the  drying-cylinders  obviated  the  necessity  for 
the  first  one  of  these  operations ;  and  it  is  very  natural  that  the  paper-makers  should 
also  have  tried  to  replace  the  second  one  by  continuous  machinery. 

180.  Drying  in  the  Web. — The  web,  instead  of  being  cut  into  sheets  on  the 
machine,  is  for  this  purpose  conducted  over  a  large  number  of  rollers,  while  a  stream 
of  warm  air  carries  off  the  moisture. 

In  England  this  is  done  by  rows  of  skeleton  drums  or  cylinders,  of  from  3  to 
4  feet  diameter,  in  each  of  which  a  fan  revolves  at  great  speed,  independent  of  the 
motion  of  the  cylinder,  creating  a  current  of  air,  which  is  carried  off  by  ventilators 
on  the  top  of  the  building.  The  surfaces  of  these  drums,  having  only  solid  parts 
enough  to  give  the  necessary  support  to  the  web,  do  not  prevent  the  direct  contact  of 
the  air  with  the  paper. 

Steam-pipes  underneath  a  floor  of  perforated,  or  partly  open,  cast-iron  plates, 
extending  as  far  as  these  drums  in  length  and  width,  heat  the  air  to  the  required 
temperature. 

That  temperature  may  be  lower  in  proportion,  as  the  passage  of  the  paper  over 
the  ventilators  is  longer,  or  the  more  of  them  there  are  provided.  Slow  drying  is 
essential  to  the  production  of  a  well  and  uniformly-sized  paper,  and  the  paper- 
machines  have  therefore  been  extended  to  an  enormpus  length  by  the  addition  of 
large  numbers  of  ventilating  drums. 


SIZING  IN  THE  WEB,  OB  SUBFACE- SIZING. 


213 


We  have  been  informed  that  Mr.  Cowan's  mill  at  Valley  Field  near  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  contains  a  machine,  which  is  of  such  length  that  njgarly  one  mile  of  paper 
has  to  be  made,  before  the  first  sheet  is  obtained  at  the  cutter.  By  far  the  larger 
portion  of  this  mile  of  paper  is  wound  around  384  ventilating  dryers,  which  are 
divided  into  three  rows,  placed  one  above  the  other.  The  paper,  after  having  passed 
through  the  size-vat  and  press,  is  guided  over  one  row  of  drums,  returns  all  the  way 
back  over  the  second  one,  and  departs  finally  to  the  calenders  and  cutter  over  the 
third  one.  On  its  passage  over  these  drums  it  is  guided  between  6  rows,  3  above  and 
3  beloAV  the  paper,  of  tapes  or  ribbons,  about  one  inch  wide,  which  are  supported  and 
running  in  the  same  way  as  the  felts. 

These  tapes  will  sometimes  break,  and  it  is  important  that  the  whole  drying 
apparatus  should  then  be  quickly  stopped  to  rej)air  them.  The  machine  is  therefore 
divided  into  a  number  (10)  of  divisions,  each  one  of  which  is  watched  closely  by  a 
machine-tender,  and  provided  with  the  means  of  stopping  all  of  the  drums. 

The  large  expense  caused  by  the  erection  and  operation  of  such  a  drying  ap- 
paratus seems  to  have  prevented  its  general  introduction.  We  know  of  only  one  mill 
in  the  United  States  where  one  of  them,  and  that  with  a  moderate  number  of  ven- 
tilating-drums,  is  used.  Several  inventive  paper-makers  have,  however,  tried  to 
replace  them  by  simpler  constructions,  some  of  Avhich  are  in  successful  operation. 

At  a  mill  in  New  England  which  manufactures  Nos.  2  and  3  flat-cap,  the  paper, 
after  leaving  the  dryers  and  slitters,  passes  through  a  size-vat  and  press  of  the  usual 
form,  but  supplied  with  a  very  concentrated  solution  of  gelatine,  and  from  there 
directly  over  three  copper  drying-cylinders  heated  with  steam.  The  paper  leaves 
them  perfectly  dry ;  but  the  quantity  of  size  which  has  to  be  used  to  make  up  for  the 
fast  drying  is  so  large  that  it  increases  the  weight  of  every  ream  by  about  2  pounds. 
2  pounds  of  paper  are  worth  more  than  2  pounds  of  the  gelatine  used,  and  thus  pay 
fully  for  the  expense  of  the  sizing  material. 

This  expeditious  way  of  drying  would  probably  not  suit  for  better  grades  of 
paper,  but  it  proves  quite  satisfactory  for  the  qualities  to  which  it  is  applied. 

It  is  generally  conceded,  that  it  is  advisable  to  at  least  dry  the  paper  in  the 
air,  at  a  moderate  temperature,  long  enough  to  set  the  size,  when  the  rest  of  the 
water  may  be  evaporated  on  steam-heated  cylinders. 

Some  of  the  machines  of  the  Seymour  Paper  Company,  at  Windsor  Locks,  Conn., 
are  provided  with  an  apparatus  constructed  on  this  principle. 

The  machine-room,  which  is  very  high,  has  a  flat  ceiling,  and  between  it  and 
the  dryers  and  sizing-vat,  are  suspended  on  wooden  frames  three  rows  of  light  wooden 
rolls,  over  which  the  paper  passes  to  and  fro  in  nearly  horizontal  lines.  A  common 
belt  passes  over  the  ends  of  the  last  rolls  of  each  row  on  the  driving-side,  and  sets 
them  in  motion.  Steam  heating-pipes  are  fastened  near  the  ceiling  and  below  the 
course  of  the  paper,  to  prevent  the  escaping  steam  from  condensing  and  dropping 
on  to  the  paper  under  it. 


214 


MAJSrUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


The  web  passes  through  the  usual  size-vat  and  press,  then  over  these  rolls  above 

the  machine,  and  lastly^round  three  steam-heated  cylinders,  which  finish  the  drying. 

It  is  to  be  suj)250sed  that  the  location  of  the  drying  arrangement,  above  the 

machine,  has  been  selected  on  account  of  the  available  room,  and  because  the  heat  of 

*         .  .  .  .  . 

the  dryers  might  be  further  utilized  for  drying  the  sized  paper.    But  the  air  which 

ascends  from  the  drying-cylinders,  already  loaded  with  water  or  steam,  is  hardly 

capable  of  taking  up  any  more  from  the  sized  paper  above,  which  cannot  possibly  be 

as  well  dried  as  if  freshly  heated  air  had  swept  over  it. 

This  method  can  hardly  be  recommended  for  fine  surface-sized  papers,  but  may 
improve  medium  qualities,  which  have  also  been  sized  in  the  pulp,  by  imparting 
greater  strength  to  them,  and  producing  what  is  called  a  crackling  paper. 

An  ingenious  American  paper-maker  has  constructed  a  drying  arrangement  for 
the  use  of  hot  air  alone,  which,  for  compactness  and  simplicity  of  design,  appears 
to  be  superior  to  all  others.  A  cut,  showing  a  section  through  it  lengthways  at  j  of 
its  real  size,  is  represented  in  Fig.  105.  The  paper  is  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  and 
travels  in  the  direction  shown  by  the  arrows. 

Fig.  105. 


Coming  from  the  size-vat  and  press,  it  passes  first  over  the  top  of  the  apparatus, 
facing  a  flat  wooden  box  a.  It  then  passes  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  open  space 
between  two  of  the  partitions  b,  up  over  the  next  one,  down  and  up  again,  until  it 
arrives  at  the  reels  c,  where  it  is  wound  up.  The  flat  wooden  box  d  lies  on  the  floor, 
carrying  all  the  upright  wooden  partitions  b  b,  and  communicating  with  A  on  the 
driving-side  of  the  machine  by  means  of  wooden  flues,  a,  b,  and  d  are  as  wide  as 
the  machine,  and  the  surface  of  a  and  all  tlie  sides  of  b  which  face  the  paper  are 
perforated  with  numerous  holes.  Steam  circulates  through  coils  of  heating-pipes  in 
D,  entering  at  the  end  e,  while  a  stream  of  fresh  air  is  constantly  blown  into  d,  by 
means  of  one  or  more  fans,  from  the  opposite  end  f.  These  fans  may  be  situated 
anywhere,  if  they  are  only  connected  with  d  by  pipes.  The  air  becomes  heated  in 
contact  with  the  coil  of  pipes  in  d,  and  finds  its  only  outlets  through  the  holes  on  the 
surfaces  of  a  and  b,  where  it  meets  the  paper  and  escapes  on  both  sides.  One  common 
belt  passes  over  the  back  ends  of  a  number  of  the  rolls  r,  driving  them  thereby,  and 
assisting  the  reels  c  in  pulling  the  paper  through. 

The  number  of  partitions  b  may  be  increased  or  decreased.  At  the  inventor's 
mills  they  are  about  7^  feet  high  and  8  inches  wide,  and  a  surface  of  from  400  to  500 
feet  length  of  paper  is  offered  all  the  time  to  the  heated  air. 


SIZING  IN  THE  WEB,  OB  SUBFACE- SIZING. 


215 


The  paper  might  also  be  guided  so  as  to  enter  the  partitions  b,  where  it  now 
leaves  them,  and  then  pass  through  calenders  and  reels  at  the  forward  end.  It  has 
evidently  been  the  aim  of  the  inventor,  to  build  as  cheap  a  drying  apparatus  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  any  millwright  supplied  with  boards,  pipes,  fan-blower,  and  paper-rolls, 
should  be  able  to  put  up  one  of  the  kind  described.  We  suppose  that  from  the  same 
motives  of  economy,  the  reel,  which  requires  driving  power,  has  been  placed  near  the 
sizing-vat,  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  extending  the  gearing  on  the  driving-side  to 
the  far  end. 

We  have  been  informed  that  the  flat-cap  papers  made  by  the  inventor  on  this 
machine  are  valued  as  highly  in  the  market  as  the  same  grades  of  loft-dried  ones 
from  other  mills. 

181.  Merits  and  Demerits  of  Different  Systems  of  Sizing  and  Drying. — Whenever 
surface-sized  paper  is  dried  in  the  web,  it  must  be  stretched  or  held  in  tension  while 
passing  through  the  necessary  apparatus,  of  whatever  construction  it  may  be.  This 
tension  prevents  the  free  contraction  which  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
superiority  of  loft-dried  papers.  The  fibres  approach  each  other  and  intei'twine  more 
thoroughly,  and  thereby  make  the  paper  stronger  and  tougher  when  unrestrained ; 
but  this  tendency  is  entirely  checked  when  it  is  pulled  over  a  machine. 

All  the  drying  arrangements  described  in  the  foregoing  pages,  are  in  this  country 
used  for  the  cheaper  grades  of  writing  and  book  paper  only,  while  all  the  finer  ones, 
especially  letter-paper,  are  dried  in  the  loft. 

Paper,  made  and  sized  on  a  machine  of  the  kind  represented  in  Fig.  99,  is  never 
touched  or  handled  until  it  reaches  the  drying-loft,  and  all  the  labor  there  consists  in 
hanging  it  up,  removing  it  again  from  the  poles,  and  joffingi  it. 

Since  the  introduction  of  sheet-calenders,  loft-dried  paper  can  be  finished  nearly 
as  cheajjly  as  paper  in  the  web  or  rolls. 

If  the  drying  is  done  slowly,  as  it  should  be,  the  automatic  drying  apparatus 
must  be  very  long,  and  probably  would  cost  more  than  the  loft  with  its  fixtures. 
*  The  increased  expense  of  drying  by  the  loft-jirocess  is — at  least  with  the  finest 

grades  of  paper — fully  compensated  for  by  the  improvement  of  their  quality. 

The  writing  public  of  Germany  and  France  use  the  engine  or  resin-sized  paper 
furnished  by  the  mills  of  those  countries.  None,  or  very  little  surface-sized  paper  is 
at  present  manufactured  there ;  but  we  have  no  doubt  that  its  superior  qualities,  if  it 
were  once  introduced,  would  soon  be  ajDpreciated  and  create  a  great  demand  for  it. 

Considering — 

1.  That  with  the  latest  imj)roved  machinery,  surface-sized  pajDer  can  be 
produced  with  very  little  more  labor  than  engine-sized  paper ; 

2.  That  softer  (and  consequently  cheaper)  stock,  if  coated  with  gelatine, 
will  furnish  as  strong  a  paper  as  harder  stock  sized  with  resin  ; 

3.  That  the  consumers  pay  for  the  gelatine  in  the  increased  weight  of  the 
paper ; 

we  conclude  that  surface-sized  paper  can  be  manufactured  at  about  the  same  cost  as 
pulp-sized  paper. 


216 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


SECTION  VII. 

Finishing. 

182,  Finishing  Common  Paper. — Paper  of  inferior  qualities,  such  as  news-print, 
wrapping,  &c.,  is  taken  from  the  cutter  to  the  finishing  table,  and  there  counted  into 
quires  of  twenty-five  sheets  for  printing-paper,  and  of  twenty-four  sheets  for  other 
kinds. 

The  girls  who  lay  the  sheets,  as  they  come  from  the  cutter,  throw  out  all  the 
imperfect  ones  which  they  may  see,  and  the  finisher  inspects  them  again  while  count- 
ing. If  the  machine-tender  is  careful,  and  does  not  allow  bad  paper  to  be  cut, 
and  if  the  cutter-girls  and  finisher  do  their  duty,  this  sim23le  system  of  sorting  is 
sufiicient. 

For  the  sake  of  easy  handling,  the  sheets  are  folded  by  the  finisher  in  the  middle 
of  their  long  sides,  while  he  is  counting  them,  into  quires  of  twenty-four  or  twenty- 
five  sheets.  To  obtain  packages  of  uniform  thickness,  these  quires  should  be  laid  on 
each  other,  so  that  the  open  sides  and  the  folded  or  closed  ones  alternate,  or  that  the 
position  of  every  quire  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding  one.  This  is  necessary  because 
the  quires  are  thicker  where  they  are  folded  than  at  their  open  sides. 

Forty  quires,  or  two  reams,  of  light  paper,  and  twenty  quires,  or  one  ream,  of 
heavy  j^aper  are  usually  packed  together  by  simply  covering  them  with  strong  wrap- 
ping-paper, tied  with  hemp  or  Manilla  twine.  Such  bundles  are  light  enough  to  be 
handled  by  one  man ;  they  are  easily  made  and  opened,  and  as  they  are  sold  by  gross 
weight,  the  paper-maker  does  not  lose  the  packing  material,  which  is,  at  the  same 
time,  of  some  value  to  the  purchaser. 

The  paper  shows  a  better  surface,  and  can  be  packed  more  neatly  if  it  has  been 
Avell  calendered  or  pressed.  It  may,  for  this  purpose,  be  subjected  to  the  action  of 
an  ordinary  press,  but  it  will  be  improved  even  by  its  own  weight,  if  the  paper  is 
piled  up  over  night  in  high  columns,  covered  with  boards,  which  are  held  down  by 
heavy  pieces  of  stone  or  iron. 

One  good  finisher  can  easily  count,  fold,  tie  out,  and  weigh  3000  pounds  of 
newsprinting-paper  per  day.  Mills,  which  confine  themselves  to  this  and  similar 
grades,  require  therefore,  a  comparatively  small  room  for  finishing,  and  it  should 
always  be  situated  on  the  same  floor  with  and  adjoining  the  machine-room. 

For  all  the  better  qualities,  such  as  letter  or  fine  book  paper,  the  finishing-room 
is  of  more  importance,  as  it  contains  the  super-calenders,  ruling,  cutting,  stamping 
machines,  and  presses. 


FimsHiisrG. 


217 


183.  Plate-Calenders. — Not  many  years  ago,  before  the  present  system  of  glazing 
paper  in  super-calenders  was  introduced,  it  was  first  cut  into  sheets,  and  then  passed 
through  plate-calenders. 

The  sheets  were  laid  singly  between  copper  or  zinc  plates  or  press-boards  until  a 
pile  or  package  of  about  twenty  or  thirty  of  them,  alternating  with  plates,  was  formed. 
These  packages  were  exposed  to  a  strong  pressure  between  iron  rolls,  which  they 
passed  and  repassed  until  the  surface  of  the  paper  was  sufficiently  glazed.  .If  a  highly- 
calendered  surface  was  required,  the  plates  had  to  be  changed  frequently,  and  the 
paper  relaid  between  them. 

The  best  plate-calenders  consist  of  two  press-rolls  with  tables  on  both  sides, 
inclining  slightly  towards  the  opening  between  the  two  rolls.  The  operator  lays  the 
package  of  plates  and  paper  on  the  table  at  the  front  side,  and  pushes  it  in  far  enough 
to  be  taken  hold  of  by  the  rolls,  and  passed  to  the  table  on  the  back  side.  Before  the 
package  is  quite  through,  it  strikes  with  its  forward  end  against  a  movable  slide, 
which  reverses  the  motion  of  the  rolls  by  means  of  a  leverage  and  two  sets  of  pulleys 
and  belts.  The  rolls,  which  have  not  fully  released  the  plates  from  their  grip,  thus 
return  them  to  their  original  position.  The  weight  of  the  upper  roll  is  increased  in 
the  usual  way  by  screw-pressure  or  by  levers  and  weights. 

A  considerable  number  of  hands  are  required  to  lay  the  paper  between  the  plates, 
but  the  largest  expense  is  caused  by  the  plates  themselves.  A  great  many  and  of 
different  sizes  must  be  kept  on  hand  to  suit  the  various  sheets,  and  they  are  neces- 
sarily flattened  out,  and  become  cracked  and  useless  in  the  course  of  time.  The 
plating  of  paper  in  these  calenders  or  platers  requires  a  great  deal  of  power,  and  is 
altogether  a  very  costly  operation. 

Among  all  the  mills  which  manufacture  fine  papers  in  this  country,  we  have 
only  found  one  where  plate-calenders  are  yet  used.  The  manager  of  that  mill  under- 
stands thoroughly  how  to  work  these  platers  as  economically  as  possible,  and  has 
established  an  enviable  reputation  for  his  paper,  but  the  almost  total  abolition  of  this 
system  proclaims,  beyond  doubt,  the  victory  of  the  super-calenders. 

The  only  advantage  over  super-calenders  which  platers  ai-e  credited  with,  is  that 
they  impart  a  perfect  finish  to  the  paper,  without  pressing  it  into  as  thin  sheets  as  the 
former. 

Metallic  plates  transfer  some  of  their  substance  in  infinittsimal  particles  to  the 
paper  between  them,  which  thus  receives  a  bluish  tint  between  zinc  and  a  reddish  one 
between  copper  plates. 

Heavy,  coarse  paper,  which  is  too  thick  and  stiff,  to  move  around  the  rolls  of  the 
super-calenders,  must  from  necessity  be  glazed  in  the  old  way. 

184.  Sheet  Super-Calenders. — The  following  Fig.  106  is  a  perspective  view,  Fig. 
107  a  section,  and  Fig.  108  a  section  of  the  three  lower  rolls  and  fixtures  on  a  larger 
scale  (1|  inch  per  foot)  of  a  stack  of  sheet  super-calenders,  built  by  the  Holyoke 
Machine  Company  at  Holyoke,  Mass. 

This  stack  consists  of  three  chilled-iron  rolls  a  a'  A"  and  two  paper-rolls  b  and 


218  MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


b\  The  paper-rolls  consist  of  numerous  sheets  of  paper  which  have  been  slipped 
on  an  iron  shaft,  and  compressed  into  a  solid  body  held  between  iron  heads.  Paper 
which  is  made  of  the  strongest  fibres  answers  best ;  those  represented  by  b  and  b"  are 
of  fine  Manilla  paper,  and  have  from  200  to  400  sheets  in  every  inch  of  the  length  of 
the  roll.  They  are  put  on  the  shaft  and  subjected  to  a  hydraulic  or  screw-pressure 
of  500  to  1000  tons,  until  they  form  a  compact  mass,  which  is  then  inclosed  between 
collars  of  a  particular  construction. 

These  collars  are  forged  round,  but  cut  open,  so  as  to  form  two  half  circles,  which 
exactly  fit  into  recesses  in  the  shaft.   The  heads  being  in  their  places,  the  half  collars 


Fig.  106. 


are  laid  into  the  adjoining  recesses,  and  rings  or  bands  are  shrunk  or  driven  over  and 
around  them,  which  hold  the  two  halves  tightly  together. 

The  collars  in  the  recesses  cannot  move  lengthwise  on  the  shaft,  as  long  as  they 
are  surrounded  by  the  ring. 

Some  machinists  have  found  that  the  paper  will  produce  a  harder  roll,  or  will 
be  better  compressed  by  screws  than  by  hydraulic  pressure.    The  screw-pressure  is 


FimSHING. 


219 


applied  through  four  upright,  stout,  threaded  boks,  between  which  the  roll  is  placed 
in  the  centre.  A  follower,*  bearing  on  the  paper  and  sliding  in  these  bolts,  is  gradu- 
ally pressed  down  by  the  nuts,  which  are  turned  singly  and  in  succession  by  means 
of  a  long  iron  lever  or  wrench  operated  by  several  men. 

This  operation  requires  more  labor,  and  is  consequently  more  expensive  than 
the  application  of  hydraulic  pressure;  but  it  acts  more  gradually,  preventing  the 
elasticity,  which  is  once  overcome,  from  exercising  any  influence,  and  as  there  is  no 
leakage — consequently  no  diminution  of  pressure — it  may  prove  practically  the  best 
method,  as  the  same  amount  of  pressure  may  be  applied  with  either  system. 

Fig.  107. 


The  paper  being  thus  formed  into  a  solid  mass,  it  is  turned  and  ground  like  iron 
rolls,  and  acquires  a  surface  resembling  that  of  glazed  pasteboards. 

The  pressure  exercised  by  the  weight  of  the  calender-rolls  is  increased  by  screws 
on  top  of  the  stands. 

A  pile  of  paper  c'  is  placed  on  the  table  c,  gradually  taken  up  by  a  female 
operative,  who  may  sit  on  the  chair  alongside  of  it,  and  placed  on  the  platform  c^. 


220 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAPEB  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


which  rests  on  hrackets  fastened  to  the  stands.  The  sheets  are  then  forwarded, 
one  by  one,  upon  the  roll  a,  so  that  they  follow  each  other  in  an  uninterrupted 
train. 

The  rolls  d  d  are  made  of  one-inch  wrought-iron  tubes  with  cast-iron  heads,  and 
the  larger  ones  e  e  are  of  wood.  The  cast-iron  bearings  are  bolted  to  the  stands,  so 
that  their  positions  can  be  changed  in  every  direction.  Three  iron  rolls  d  and  one 
wooden  one  e,  are  situated  so  that  endless  bands  r,  which  run  over  them,  cover  about 
one-half  of  the  circumference  of  the  roll  A ;  the  sheets  are  pushed  in  between  the 
bands  and  the  roll  on  top  of  a,  held  by  the  former  to  the  surface,  and  carried  far 
enough  to  secure  their  passage  between  a  and  b. 

It  is  now  necessary  that  the  paper  should  leave  the  roll  a  and  follow  b,  and  in 
ordinary  calenders  the  machine-tender  removes  the  sheets  from  a  and  guides  them 
over  b;  but  in  our  sheet  super-calenders,  the  human  fingers  are  replaced  by  iron,  or 
rather  steel,  ones. 

A  small  iron  casting  g  (Fig.  108)  rests  on  a  shaft,  which  is  suspended  in  bear- 
ings G^,  fastened  to  the  stands,  like  those  of  the  rolls  d  d.  A  strip  of  steel,  j'g  inch 
thick  and  |  inch  wide,  with  a  movable  cast-iron  weight  h  on  the  end,  is  sunk  in  and 
fastened  on  the  top  of  g  by  means  of  two  screws.  The  forward  end  of  this  strip  or  finger 
is  made  to  bear  slightly  against  the  roll  Adjust  enough  to  prevent  the  paper  from  fol- 
lowing it  any  further.  This  pressure,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  can  be  regulated  nicely 
by  the  position  of  the  weight  h,  and  the  points  of  the  fingers  are  flattened  out  to  fit 
on  the  surface  of  the  roll  a  without  cutting  it.  These  fingers  are  only  resting  on 
their  shafts ;  they  are  not  fastened,  and  must  be  occasionally  moved  sideways  along 
the  face  of  the  rolls,  to  touch  every  jiart  of  their  surface  for  an  equal  length  of  time, 
and  thus  wear  it  uniformly.  The  length  of  the  rolls  in  our  drawing  is  28  inches  on 
the  face,  and  two  or  three  of  these  fingers  are  applied  to  every  one,  according  to  the 
width  of  the  paper. 

The  sheets,  being  thus  prevented  from  following  the  roll  a  any  farther,  are 
transferred  to  the  surface  of  b,  and  kept  to  it  by  another  set  of  endless  bands,  run- 
ning over  two  iron  rolls  d  and  one  wooden  roll  e.  Five  or  six  of  these  guide-bands 
F  (Fig.  106),  1^  inches  wide,  of  strong  well- woven  cotton,  sewed  together  at  the  ends, 
run  over  every  set  of  rolls  d  d  and  e,  and  are  tightened,  if  they  become  slack,  by 
moving  the  bearings  of  the  rolls  d  and  e  further  out. 

Each  one  of  the  rolls  a  b  a^  b^  is  supplied  with  fingers  and  guide-bands ;  the 
sheets  are  safely  passed  through  the  calenders  and  leave  above  the  lower  roll  a^.  To 
the  forward  ends  of  the  two  fingers,  applied  to  the  roll  b^  and  fastened  on  castings  g^ 
are  riveted  pieces  of  thin  sheet-copper  g'^  as  wide  as  themselves  (|  inch),  which  can 
be  bent  into  any  desired  shape.  The  bearings  bolted  to  the  brackets  k,  which  are 
bolted  to  the  stands,  carry  a  shaft  i^,  to  the  flattened  parts  of  which  are  riveted  five 
other  steel  fingers  i  for  the  support  of  the  j^aper  on  leaving  the  rolls.  The  bent 
wires  i^,  fastened  to  the  ends  of  the  shaft  i^,  carry  the  weights  i*,  and  press  the  fingers  i 
sufiiciently  against  the  roll  a^. 


FimsHmo. 


221 


The  sheets,  on  leaving  the  roll  b\  have  no  choice  of  way,  but  are  guided  between 
the  copper  strips  and  the  fingers  i  to  the  wooden  roll  l.  Bands  of  the  same  kind 
as  those  running  over  d  and  e  pass  over  the  rolls  l— and  l'— ;  the  sheets  enter 
between  them,  are  carried  through  and  deposited  in  the  box  n,  being  at  this  place 

Fig.  108. 


carefully  watched  and  sorted  by  a  female  operative  seated  on  the  chair  (Fig.  107). 
The  roll     is  set  in  motion  by  the  pulley  m  on  the  shaft  of  roll      (Fig.  106)  ;  l  is 
driven  from  it  by  the  bands,  and  moves  in  its  turn  l',  which  rests  on  it,  by  friction. 
Wooden  doctors  t,  carried  in  the  same  kind  of  iron  brackets  as  the  rolls  d  and  e, 


222 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPEB  FBOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


prevent  any  impurities  or  pieces  of  paper  from  going  round  on  the  rolls  a'  and  a^. 
They  are  pressed  against  these  rolls  by  the  weight  of  pieces  of  lead,  which  are 
fastened  to  them. 

The  receiving-box  n  (Fig.  107)  can  be  moved  in  and  out  on  the  supporting 
wooden  brackets  to  suit  the  various  lengths  of  sheets,  and  is  only  held  in  its  place 
by  a  half-round  board  on  top,  which  forms  a  clamp  with  a  corresponding  board 
below.  The  boards  are  not  fastened  anywhere,  but  simply  notched  out  to  fit  the 
two  rods  s,  on  which  they  can  be  shifted  sideways,  and  which  hold  them  in  their 
places. 

The  sheets  leave  the  calenders  loaded  with  electricity,  produced  by  friction ; 
they  cling  to  each  other  as  if  they  were  pasted  together,  and  jjaper-makers  know  how 
difficult  it  is  to  separate  and  lay  them.  It  is  necessary  to  draw  off  this  electricity, 
and  it  can  be  done  in  a  very  simple  manner  by  steam.  A  steam-pipe  o  (Fig.  108), 
ending  in  a  goose-neck  and  the  horizontal  pipe  p,  is  placed  in  the  middle,  between 
the  brackets  k.  The  pipe  p  is  about  two  feet  long,  parallel  with  the  calender-rolls, 
and  has  a  row  of  small  holes  on  its  lower  side,  like  a  shower-pipe ;  a  tin  funnel  or  a 
larger  pipe  k,  open  on  top,  and  situated  below  p,  extends  a  short  distance  beyond  it 
at  both  ends,  catches  all  the  water  which  accompanies  the  steam-jets,  and  discharges 
it  through  e'.  The  steam  rises  up  to  the  sheets  as  they  pass  over  the  rolls  l  and 
L^,  depriving  them  of  their  electricity,  and  its  quantity  can  be  regulated  by  the 
valve  o'. 

The  persons  who  shift  the  paper  into  the  calenders  from  the  platform  are 
provided  with  rubber  thimbles,  to  prevent  the  sheets  from  adhering  to  or  being 
marked  by  their  fingers. 

The  driving-roll  a^  of  this  stack  makes  about  80  revolutions  j)er  minute,  and  the 
sheets  pass  through  it  nearly  as  fast  as  if  the  paper  were  in  rolls  or  web. 

If  a  high  polish  is  desired,  the  sheets  are  passed  several  times  through  one  or 
more  of  these  calenders ;  and  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  letter  and  other  fine  paper, 
made  in  the  United  States,  is  glazed  in  this  way,  proves  their  efficiency. 

185.  Transfer  of  the  Paper  from  the  Machine  to  the  Web  Super-Calenders. — Sheet 
calenders  are  only  necessary  if  the  paper  has  been  sized  on  the  surface  and  dried  in 
sheets ;  but  if  it  has  been  sized  in  the  engine  or^on  the  machine,  but  dried  in  the  web, 
it  can  be  glazed  in  web  calenders. 

After  the  paper  has  been  cut  lengthways  by  the  slitters  on  the  machine,  it  must 
be  wound  up  on  reels  which  can  be  taken  to  the  super-calenders. 

The  reels  of  the  paper-machine  are  for  this  purpose  filled  with  paper  in  the 
ordinary  manner,  and  wound  off  on  other  reels,  the  shaft  of  which  is  supported  by 
the  machine-frames,  and  driven  by  means  of  the  usual  friction  arrangement,  so  as  to 
reduce  its  speed  in  proportion  with  the  increase  of  the  diameter  of  the  roll  of  paper. 

The  reels,  which  are  slipped  on  this  shaft,  consist  of  two  cast-iron  spiders,  bored 
out  as  large  as  the  thickness  of  the  shaft,  and  they  have,  including  the  usual  six 
wooden  caps,  a  diameter  of  from  6  to  8  inches.    Every  spider  has  a  projection,  fitting 


FimsHmo. 


223 


a  like  one  in  an  iron  collar  on  the  same  shaft,  and  forming  a  clutch  with  it.  When- 
ever paper  is  to  be  rolled  up,  these  collars  are  put  in  contact  with  the  spiders,  fastened 
to  the  shaft  with  set-screws,  and  thus  turn  the  reels. 

The  super-calenders  are  wide  enough  for  the  width  of  one  sheet  only ;  the  two 
or  three  trains  of  sheets  cut  by  the  slitters  must  therefore  be  rolled  up  on  as  many 
separate  reels.  If  the  paper  on  the  machine  has,  for  instance,  been  cut  into  three 
widths,  the  shaft  must  be  supplied  with  three  separate  reels,  the  ends  of  which 
adjoin  each  other.  As  soon  as  they  are  full,  the  collars  or  clutches  are  loosened,  the 
reels  slipped  off,  and  put  on  a  shaft  of  the  same  diameter,  on  the  frame  of  the  super- 
calenders.  Another  set  of  empty  reels  is  put  on  the  shaft,  which  rests  on  the  machine- 
frames,  and  filled  up  again  as  before.  It  is  evident  that  a  great  number  of  these 
portable  reels  must  be  kept  on  hand. 

186.  Web  Super-Calenders. — Web  super-calenders  are,  like  sheet  super-calenders, 
composed  of  chilled  iron  and  paper-rolls,  but  the  paper  is  guided  through  most  of 
them  by  hand,  though  some  have  been  lately  built  with  guide-bands  and  fingers, 
which  take  the  paper  through  without  any  assistance.  A  stack  of  that  kind,  as  built 
by  the  Rice,  Barton  &  Fales  Machine  and  Iron  Company,  Worcester,  Mass,  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  109. 

The  two  bottom  rolls,  the  top  roll,  and  the  third  roll  (counting  from  above)  are 
of  chilled  iron,  and  the  second  and  fourth  rolls  of  paper. 

A  heavy  roll  is  required  on  top  to  give  pressure  by  its  weight.  The  paper  rolls 
must  be  large,  because  they  would  otherwise  soon  become  too  small  through  wear  and 
tear  and  consequent  grinding  and  turning,  and  the  bottom  roll  must  be  strong  and 
large  to  support  the  weight  of  the  whole  stack.  The  paper  rolls  are  frequently  dam- 
aged by  the  doubling  or  rolling  up  on  them  of  pieces  of  paper,  or  by  accidents,  and 
show  high  and  hollow  places,  which  mark  the  paper.  It  is  not  desirable  to  turn 
them  off  whenever  they  are  slightly  damaged ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  two 
bottom  rolls  are  of  chilled  iron.  The  paper  passes  through  them  after  it  has  gone 
over  all  the  paper  ones,  and  their  hard  surfaces,  under  the  pressure  of  the  whole 
stack  and  of  the  screws,  smooth  out  again  any  marks  which  may  have  been  made  by 
slightly  damaged  paper  rolls. 

The  shaft  on  the  forward  end  of  the  calender-frame  (Fig.  109)  carries  the  reels 
filled  with  paper,  and  the  spur-wheel  on  it  gears  into  another  one,  which  is  sup23orted 
on  the  frame,  but  shown  at  the  opposite  end.  A  friction-pulley — to  the  surface  of 
which  a  leather  band  is  pressed  by  means  of  tightening  screws,  or  by  weights,  attached 
to  the  loose  end — is  connected  with  this  lower  spur-wheel,  and  gives,  by  means  of  the 
upper  spur-wheel,  the  necessary  resistance  to  the  shaft  and  reels.  If  the  friction- 
pulleys  were  placed  directly  on  the  reel-shaft,  it  would  be  necessary  to  remove  the 
leather  bands  whenever  the  shaft  had  to  be  taken  off  to  change  the  reels. 

On  the  same  frame  with  the  reel-shaft  are  seen  three  other  rolls,  likewise  sup-, 
plied  with  friction-pulleys,  under  and  over  which  the  paper  is  taken  before  it  is  put 
over  another  carrying-roll  higher  up,  and  into  the  stack  between  the  two  upper  rolls. 


FimsHmo. 


225 


This  circuitous  route  is  necessary  to  straighten  the  paper  and  pass  it  into  the 
super-calenders  without  wrinkles. 

The  stack  is  supplied  with  guide-bands  and  fingers,  like  sheet  super-calenders ; 
the  paper  passes  through  without  assistance  until  it  leaves  between  the  two  lower  rolls, 
is  thence  taken  by  hand  over  three  rolls,  disposed  like  those  shown  on  the  front  side, 
and  wound  up  on  the  receiving-reels. 


Fig.  110. 


The  stack  of  super-calenders  represented  in  Fig.  110  has  been  built  by  Messrs. 
Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del.  It  has  four  chilled-iron  rolls  a  a^  a'^,  four 
paper  rolls  b  b^  b'^,  and  is  set  in  motion  by  a  friction-jiulley  e,  the  rim  of  which  is 
lined  inside  with  wood  and  fitted  to  a  slightly  conical  iron  pulley,  which  can  be  easily 
pulled  out  or  pushed  in  by  means  of  a  coupling  and  lever. 

The  shaft,  on  which  the  calendered  paper  is  wound  up,  is  geared  in  an  improved 
manner.  It  is  driven  from  the  pulley  on  the  shaft  of  the  lower  roll  a^,  by  means  of 
pulley  F  and  spur-wheels  d  d  or     d\    The  two  sets  of  wheels  d  d  and  are  of 

different  sizes,  and  enable  the  operator  to  pass  the  paper  through  the  calenders  with 

29 


226 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


either  of  the  speeds  given  by  them.  The  friction,  through  which  alone  the  pulley  f 
moves  the  shaft  on  which  it  runs,  can  be  increased  or  reduced  by  a  few  turns  of  the 
hand-wheel  r,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  reel-shafts.  The  shaft  on  which  the 
paper  is  rolled  up,  can  easily  be  lifted  in  or  out,  as  it  carries  no  wheels  or  pulleys,  and 
is  connected  with  the  gearing  through  a  simple  coupling  controlled  by  the  lever  c. 

The  great  pressure  that  is  occasionally  put  upon  the  rolls,  by  means  of  the 
screws  provided  for  the  purpose,  would  tend  to  break  the  stands  or  frames.  To  pre- 
vent this,  strong  rods  are  placed  in  recesses  in  the  frames,  which  connect  the  cap  or 
top  with  the  bearings  in  which  the  lower  roll  runs,  so  that  the  entire  strain  comes 
upon  the  rods,  which,  if  broken,  could  be  easily  replaced,  and  no  other  part  of  the 
machine  would  be  disturbed. 

187.  Attachments  and  Disposition  of  Super-Calenders. — Sometimes  a  cutter  is 
attached  to  the  super-calenders,  and  the  polished  paper  is  cut  in  sheets  as  soon  as  it 
leaves  the  stack. 

Some  papers,  however,  must  be  taken  several  times  through  the  super-calenders, 
while  others  only  once ;  and  it  is  therefore  more  convenient  to  have  the  cutter  in- 
dependent of  them.  It  can  hardly  be  of  advantage  in  any  case  to  connect  the  cutter 
directly  with  the  super-calenders,  as  the  latter  may  run  with  much  higher  speed  than 
the  former. 

The  super-calenders  represented  in  Fig.  109  are  2)i'ovided  with  tight  and  loose 
pulleys  and  with  a  coupling  on  the  large  spur-wheel,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be 
stopped  or  started  at  will.  These  ordinary  couplings  must  be  constantly  held  together 
by  force,  slip  out  sometimes,  and  are  a  source  of  trouble  and  irregularities. 

The  friction-pulley  represented  in  the  following  Fig.  Ill,  invented  and  manu- 
factured by  Messrs.  Volney  W.  Mason  &  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  is  frequently  used 
and  recommended  for  super-calenders,  as  well  as  for  any  other  machinery  which  must 
be  frequently  stopped  and  started  without  any  alteration  in  the  motive  power. 

The  sleeve  or  thimble  f  is  operated  by  a  lever,  and  slides  on  a  key  on  the  shaft 
A.  A  loose  ring  i  is  put  in  the  groove  of  the  thimble  f,  and  connects  with  the  fork 
of  the  lever  by  two  projections  or  ears.  The  segments  e,  of  which  there  may  be 
two  or  four,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pulley,  are  carried  on  f  by  arms,  movable  in 
toggle  joints  or  hinges.  The  length  of  the  arms  can  be  increased  or  decreased  by 
means  of  screws. 

While  the  shaft  a  has  no  work  to  do,  the  inside  of  the  rim  of  the  pulley  b  does  not 
touch  the  surface  of  the  segments  e,  and  the  arms,  which  carry  them,  form  an  angle. 
But  as  soon  as  the  shaft  a  is  to  be  put  in  operation,  the  sleeve  F*is  pushed  against  the 
plate  D  of  the  pulley  b  as  far  as  possible,  the  arms  will  then  form  a  straight  line,  the 
segments  e  are  pressed  against  the  rim  of  the  pulley  and  compelled  by  friction  to 
move  around  with  it.  As  the  arms  are  then  standing  square  to  the  shaft  a,  there  is  no 
power  exercised  to  push  the  sleeve  f  back — an  advantage  which  this  construction  has 
over  many  other  friction-pulleys.  The  inventors  prescribe  the  following  method  for 
adjusting  the  friction  : 


FimSHING. 


227 


"The  friction-pressure  may  be  equally  adjusted  by  placing  the  centres  of  the  segments  E  e  hori- 
zontally; then  place  a  strip  of  stiff  paper  between  the  centre  of  each  segment's  friction-surface  and  the 
inside  of  the  pulley  when  the  thimble  is  unshipped ;  then,  while  holding  one  strip  of  paper  in  each 
hand,  have  the  thimble  moved  slowly  toward  the  plate  D,  and  notice  which  strip  tightens  first ;  then 
turn  the  screw  of  toggle  joint  to  regulate  until  the  pressure  is  alike  on  each  segment,  and  sufficient  to 
drive  without  slipping ;  then  tighten  the  check  nuts  firmly  against  the  joint.  The  thimble  F  should 
always  ship  close  up  against  the  plate  D,,as  the  toggles  then  just  pass  their  centres,  holding  in  themselves 
without  any  end  pressure  on  the  thimble,  when  shipped  in  to  drive." 

Buffers. — The  paper  calender-rolls  require  frequent  grinding  or  buffing.  This 
can  be  done  while  they  are  running,  by  an  attachment  to  the  frames,  which  carries 
an  emery  roll,  moving  laterally  while  being  pressed  against  the  calender-roll  and 
revolving  with  different  speed.  The  grinding-roll  is  an  ordinary  flanged  pulley,  the 
face  of  which  is  covered  with  a  paste  of  resin  and  flour  of  emery.  Buffing  machines 
which  work  on  this  principle  are  used  by  many  manufacturers,  and  answer  the 
purpose. 

Fig.  111. 


Super-calenders  are  always  built  narrow,  not  over  36  to  42  inches,  for  the  width 
of  one  sheet  only;  while  the  machine  makes  two  or  three  trains  of  sheets  at  one  time. 

It  is  certainly  possible  to  add  super-calenders  directly  to  the  machine,  but  long 
rolls  would  then  be  required,  which  could  hardly  fail  to  spring  in  the  middle  if  suf- 
ficiently pressed  on  the  ends.  They  would  also  be  more  liable  to  be  injured  in  the 
machine,  as  they  cannot  be  stopped  so  suddenly  and  watched  so  closely,  nor  could  they 
run  as  fast,  as  in  an  independent  stack. 

When  plate-calenders  used  to  be  the  only  means  of  giving  a  high  polish  to  the 


228 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


paper,  it  was  considered  very  desii'able  that  calenders  should  be  invented  by  which 
the  paper  could  be  finished  on  the  machine ;  but  our  present  super-calenders  are  so 
sinij^le  and  require  so  little  labor,  that  the  comparatively  small  additional  expense, 
caused  by  them,  is  fully  compensated  by  the  convenience  and  the  advantages  which 
they  offer. 

The  cutters  used  for  calendered  paper  are  the  same  as  those  used  on  the  machine, 
and  they  may  cut  two  or  three  reels  at  one  time,  in  the  finishing-room  as  well  as  in 
the  machine-room, 

188.  Ruling'-Machines. — Nearly  all  the  letter  and  blank-book  paper  must  be 
ruled.  In  former  times  the  lines  were  frequently  pressed  into  the  paper,  like  water- 
marks ;  but  such  lines  are  indistinct,  weaken  the  paper,  and  destroy  its  uniformity. 

Since  ruling-machines  have  reached  their  present  state  of  perfection,  they  ex- 
clusively are  used  for  this  purpose. 

One  of  these  machines,  which  has  been  built  by  the  Holyoke  INIachine  Company, 
of  Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  is  represented  on  Plate  V  by  a  plan  in  Fig.  1,  and  by  front 
and  side  elevations  in  Fig.  2.  The  front  elevation  (Fig.  2)  is  shown  without  the 
front  side  frame. 

The  canvas  apron  a,  which  is  supported  by  the  board  a*,  receives  the  sheets  from 
the  hands  of  an  attendant,  who  furnishes  them  from  a  pile  on  an  adjoining  table. 
This  apron  a  is  kept  stretched  by  the  weight  of  the  roll  A'^,  which  is  suspended  on 
two  levers  turning  in  a*,  and  by  the  stretch-roll  a\  The  roll  a^  presses  it  against  the 
wooden  cylinder  b,  from  which  it  receives  its  motion  by  friction. 

The  dotted  lines  b^  indicate  the  belt  by  which  the  large  driving-pulley  on  the 
shaft  of  the  cylinder  b,  and  with  it  the  whole  machine,  is  set  in  motion.  This 
motion  can  be  arrested  or  started  by  means  of  the  coupling,  which  connects  the  loose 
pulley  B  with  the  shaft,  and  is  easily  thrown  in  or  out  of  gear  by  the  lever  b^. 

Cotton  threads,  made  endless  by  having  their  ends  tied  together,  run,  about  2 
inches  apart,  over  the  cylinder  b  and  the  rolls  and  c,  and  another  set  of  such  threads 
moves  on  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  b,  and  over  the  rolls  d,  back  to  the 

starting-i^oint. 

These  rolls  rest  in  brass  brackets,  which  are  fastened  to  the  frames  in  such  a 
way,  that  their  positions,  and  with  them  those  of  the  threads,  can  be  adjusted.  One 
of  the  rolls  of  each  set  has  narrow  channels  turned  into  its  surface,  wherein  the 
threads  run,  and  whereby  they  are  kept  in  their  jilaces. 

The  sheets  proceed  with  the  apron  a  until  they  leave  it  at  a^,  and  enter  at  d, 
between  the  two  rows  of  endless  threads  just  described,  which  carry  them  over  a  part 
of  B  and  over  and  c,  where  they  leave  for  the  second  cylinder  e.  This  cylinder  e 
is  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  first  one  b  ;  it  rests  in  the  bearings  e\  and  its  pulley 
E^  is  driven  from  b^  by  a  cross-belt.  One  set  of  endless  threads  runs  over  a  part  of 
E,  and  over  the  rolls  f^,  f^,  f\  f,  and  another  one  winds  its  way  over  the  cylinder  e, 
and  the  rolls  and  G  (Fig.  1).  The  sheets,  coming  from  c,  enter  between  these  two 
rows  of  threads  at  f,  pass  with  them  over  e,  and  leave  them  again  at  g\ 


FINISHING. 


229 


We  shall  first  follow  the  paper  on  its  course  through  the  whole  machine,  and 
then  explain  the  manner  in  which  it  is  ruled  and  cut,  while  passing  over  the  cyl- 
inders B  and  E. 

The  sheets  leave  the  threads  at  g\  and  are  carried  by  the  apron  i  from  to  h^. 
This  apron  runs  over  the  rolls  h\  and  the  stretch-roll  h''  ;  it  is  broken  off  in  Fig,  1 
near  the  end,  in  order  to  show  the  channels  which  are  turned  into  h\  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  apron  extended  and  in  its  place.  A  leather  belt  h,  shown 
full  in  Fig.  1,  and  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  2,  runs  over  the  back  ends  of  the  cylinder 
E,  and  of  the  rolls  g\  h^,  h',  h^,  and  h*,  communicating  to  their  circumference  the 
motion  of  the  surface  of  e. 

The  sheets,  in  travelling  over  the  threads  and  aprons,  are  unequally  warped  and 
bent,  and  would  not  form  a  compact  pile  if  laid  on  each  other  in  this  form.  They 
are  therefore  subjected  to  a  straightening,  or  rather  curbing,  operation  before  being 
deposited. 

The  mechanism  used  for  this  purpose  forms  part  of  the  lay-boy,  and  is,  with  the 
latter,  mounted  on  cast-iron  frames  k,  while  those  su23i:)orting  the  ruling  machine 
proper  are  of  wood.  The  sheets,  after  leaving  the  apron  i  at  h^,  proceed  on  leather 
belts,  running  over  pulleys  l  and  l",  driven  by  a  belt     from  the  roll  h\ 

The  side  edges  of  the  two  sheets,  on  leaving  the  apron  i,  meet  the  curved  pieces 
of  wood  M  (side  elevation.  Fig.  2),  while  two  belts  m',  running  over  the  pulleys 
and  M^,  are  pressing  on  their  middle,  above  the  belts  on  the  pulleys  l  and  l'.  Their 
middles  are  thus  firmly  held  between  two  belts,  while  their  edges  are  raised  to  the 
top  of  the  pieces  m,  and  the  sheets  cannot  fail  to  be  thus  uniformly  bent.  The  guides 
M  are  dovetailed  and  fastened  with  keys  in  the  wooden  cross-pieces  n,  and  may  be 
moved  sideways  to  suit  the  widths  of  the  different  sheets. 

On  leaving  the  roll  i?,  the  sheets  drop  down  on  the  lay-boy  o  between  the  par- 
titions o\  which  can  be  shifted  and  fastened  with  bolts  on  the  wooden  cross-j^ieces  o^. 
These  partitions  o'  are  of  wood  screwed  on  iron  plates.  The  upright  sides  prevent 
the  sheets  from  falling  out,  and  are  fastened  on  horizontal  boards,  tacked  to  the 
wooden  cross-pieces  o^. 

The  sheets  will  not  form  a  straight  pile  unless  they  are  patted  on  the  back  edge 
as  they  come  down,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hands  of  the  cutter-girls  pat  the  paper, 
when  they  receive  it  from  the  cutter  and  lay  it  on  the  table.  The  shaft  of  the  roll 
is,  for  this  j)urpose,  provided  with  a  crank-plate  l^,  the  crank-pin  of  which  fits  and 
moves  in  the  thin  wooden  strip  l^,  which  is  slotted  out  at  its  upper  end  to  receive  it. 
The  lower  end  of  is  bolted  to  a  plate  on  shaft  l*,  and  thereby  connected  with  a  flat 
piece  of  wood  l*,  which  is  slotted  out  to  receive  two  bolts,  by  which  two  strips  of 
sheet  tin  l"^  are  fastened  to  it.  With  every  revolution  of  the  crank-plate  l^,  the  top 
of  the  strip  is  moved  sideways  to  and  fro,  and  through  the  plate  at  its  lower  end 
and  the  shaft  l*  communicates  the  same  motion  to  the  strips  l^,  which  thus  contin- 
ually pat  the  paper  as  it  reaches  the  lay-boy. 

The  lay-boy  can  be  lowered  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  p  and  racks  p\  as  the 


230 


MANUFACTUBE  OF  PAP  EE  FEOM  BAGS  BY  MACHINEBY. 


paper  is  piled  up,  but  it  is  usually  preferred  to  remove  the  paper  before  the  piles 
become  too  large. 

While  the  sheets  travel  over  the  cylinders  b  and  e  between  the  threads,  and  are 
carried  by  them,  they  are  ruled  on  both  sides.  The  ingenious  apparatus  by  which 
this  is  done  is  represented  in  detail  by  section  and  side  elevation  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  V, 
as  applied  to  the  second  cylinder  e. 

The  pens,  which  are  the  principal  part  of  this  invention,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  made,  are  shown  by  Fig.  3  in  full  size.  A  sheet  of  thin  coj)per  or 
brass  is  cut  out  into  strips  q,  at  the  distances  and  in  such  numbers,  as  the  lines 
may  be  desired  on  the  paper.  They  are  formed  as  shown  by  q,  and,  when  folded 
or  doubled  up  into  pens,  they  ajjpear  in  the  shape  of  q'.  A  row  of  such  pens  is  held 
between  wooden  clam2:)s  e,  which  are  suspended  on  journals  at  their  larger  ends, 
in  such  a  manner,  that  their  jooints  rest  on  the  paper  as  it  passes  over  the  cylinder. 
A  copper  trough  e\  as  long  as  the  cylinder,  is  filled  with  blue  ink,  and  into  this  ink 
is  dipped  a  piece  of  flannel  e^,  which  rests  on  the  clamp ;  e^  sucks  up  the  ink,  and, 
acting  as  a  syphon,  delivers  it  through  a  number  of  threads  which  may  be  loose,  but 
of  the  same  material,  or  threaded  from  the  same  joiece,  to  as  many  pens. 

The  loose,  or  rather,  independent,  threads  are  either  fastened  to  with  a  few 
stitches,  or  simply  pressed  on  it. 

If  a  few  red  lines  are  desired,  little  cups  containing  red  ink  are  hung  in  the 
trough  E*,  to  feed  the  respective  pens  with  separate  threads. 

The  springs  v,  which  are  fastened  to  the  frame  (Fig.  2,  front  elevation),  exercise 
a  slight  pressure  on  the  clamj^ts  e,  and  through  them  on  the  pens. 

After  the  paper  has  been  ruled  on  both  sides  by  the  two  sets  of  pens  on  the 
cylinders  b  and  e  resj)ectively,  it  is  sometimes  desired,  especially  for  blank  books  and 
bills,  to  draw  lines  for  columns  square  across  the  other  ones.  But,  as  the  head  of  the 
sheet  is  to  be  usually  left  free,  these  column  lines  are  not  allowed  to  extend  over  the 
whole  sheet,  but  must  stop  where  the  bill-head  begins. 

This  is  accomplished  by  the  following  arrangement : 

A  bracket  s  (Fig.  4)  is  screwed  to  the  upper  side  of  the  clamp  e  in  some  place 
where  no  lines  are  to  be  drawn,  and  which  is  consequently  free  from  pens,  usually  in 
the  middle.  A  bolt  is  fastened  in  this  bracket  with  a  set-screw,  and  carries  at  the 
other  end  a  fork  s^,  and  a  steel  roll  susjoended  in  the  latter.  On  this  roll  is  fast- 
ened a  strip  of  leather  s*,  which  is  notched  out  at  the  end  near  the  cylinder  e.  The 
whole  is  adjusted  in  such  a  way  that  the  pens  draw  lines  on  the  paper,  while  the  steel 
roll  rests  on  it.  The  paper,  which  has  been  previously  ruled,  is  now  fed  to  the 
machine,  at  right  angle  to  the  direction  in  which  it  travelled  the  first  time,  so  that 
the  pens  will  draw  the  column  lines,  and  as  soon  as  a  sheet  reaches  the  roll  s^,  it 
strikes  the  notch  in  the  leather  s",  and  carries  it  along,  thus  interposing  it  between 
s^  and  the  paper,  raising  the  clamp  e,  and  with  it  the  pens,  clear  off. 

When  as  great  a  length  of  paper  as  the  length  of  strip  has  travelled  through 
below  s^,  the  latter  regains  its  place  on  the  sheet,  and  turns  until  the  leather  s*  has 


FINISHING.  231 


returned  to  its  original  position,  and  stops  its  further  movement.  The  edge  of  the 
next  ai-riving  sheet  repeats  the  operation. 

The  bill-head  or  the  space  at  the  head  of  the  sheet,  which  is  free  from  column 


Fig.  112. 


lines,  is  exactly  as  wide  as  the  distance  from  the  notch  to  the  end  of  the  leather  s*, 
and  any  demand  may  be  suited  by  means  of  a  few  strips  of  different  lengths. 

The  sheets  furnished  to  the  ruling-machine  are  double  ones,  and  must  be  cut  on 
the  second  cylinder  e  by  a  slitter  t,  of  the  kind  used  on  paper-machines ;  its  shaft 


232  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


rests  in  bearings  t\  but  the  steel  slitter-plate  runs  against  an  iron  plate  instead  of  a 
second  slitter-knife.  The  cylinder  e  is  divided  into  halves  by  this  plate,  the  form  of 
which  can  be  seen  in  the  front  elevation,  Fig.  2. 

The  sheets  must  be  fed  in  exactly  the  correct  position,  to  be  cut  and  ruled  as 
intended,  and  for  this  purpose  the  angle-board  x  is  fastened  on  one  side  of  the  frame. 
Another  angle  x\  of  sheet  zinc,  is  tacked  to  the  upright  part  of  x,  and  extends  with 
its  horizontal  j)art  under  the  apron  a.  The  guide-board  x  is  slotted  out,  so  that  it, 
and  with  it  the  apron,  can  be  shifted  in  or  out  to  suit  the  width  of  the  sheet.  The 
sheets  are  fed  so  that  one  of  their  side-edges  moves  close  along  the  guide  x\ 

A  great  deal  of  note-jjaper  is  found  to  be  ruled  on  three  pages  only,  or  one  side 
of  the  sheet  is  ruled  throughout,  and  the  other  only  half  across.  This  is  accomplished 
by  feeding  the  sheets  on  the  apron  a  so,  that  every  one  covers  or  overlaps  one-half 
of  the  preceding  one.  One-half  only  being  offered  to  the  pens  of  the  cylinder  b,  the 
covered  half  must  remain  blank. 

But,  in  order  to  line  the  other  side  all  through,  the  sheets  must  offer  the  full 
surface  to  the  j^ens  on  the  cylinder  e,  which  latter  must  be  for  this  purpose  speeded 
twice  as  fast  as  b.  As  soon  as  the  sheets  enter  between  the  roll  f  and  cylinder  e,  the 
higher  speed  snaps  them  from  under  their  followers,  and  starts  them  separately  on 
the  balance  of  their  journey. 

189.  Trimming-Knife. —  The  paj)er,  having  been  ruled  and  calendered,  is  counted, 
sorted,  and  folded,  and  then  trimmed. 

A  trimming-knife,  built  by  Rice,  Barton  &  Fales,  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  112. 

It  is  moved  from  below  the  floor  by  a  crank,  which  is  connected  with  the  trim- 
ming-knife by  a  rod  inside  of  one  of  the  hollow  columns. 

The  position  of  the  knife  and  table  can  be  adjusted  by  screws,  as  seen  in  the  cut. 

190.  Hydraulic  and  Screw  Presses.— After  the  paper  has  been  calendered,  ruled, 
and  folded,  it  is  subjected  for  some  time  (not  less  than  twelve  hours  or  one  night)  to 
a  very  heavy  pressure.  The  surface  is  thereby  improved,  and  the  quires  become 
comj^act  enough  to  undergo  the  following  operations  of  stamping  and  packing,  as  well 
as  of  transportation,  without  separating  into  sheets. 

Large  hydraulic  jjresses  or  iron  screw-presses  are  the  only  ones  seen  in  modern 
mills. 

A  hydraulic  press,  as  manufactured  by  the  Holyoke  Machine  Company, 
Holyoke,  Massachusetts,  is  represented  in  Figs.  113  and  114. 

A  press  is  called  a  hydraulic  one  if  the  jDower  which  produces  the  pressure  is 
exercised  through  the  medium  of  a  liquid. 

The  objects  which  are  to  be  subjected  to  pressure  are  dis|)osed  on  a  plate,  fastened 
to  the  upper  part  of  a  plunger,  which  fits  into  a  solid  stationary  cylinder.  One  or 
more  pumps  force  a  small  stream  of  water  through  a  pipe  into  this  cylinder,  dis- 
placing the  plunger,  which  moves  upward  to  make  room  for  it,    The  distance 


FimSHIJSfG. 


233 


between  the  movable  and  tlie  upper  stationary  platform  is  thus  constantly  reduced, 
and  the  paper  between  them  compressed. 

Some  skill  and  experience  are  required  to  put  the  paper  on  the  platform  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  form  a  pile  of  equal  height  in  every  part.  If  not  set  in  this 
manner,  the  paper  will  not  present  a  uniform  appearance,  and  will  look  worse  than  if 
not  pressed  at  all. 

Fio.  113, 


The  quantity  of  liquid  which  is  necessary  to  force  the  plunger  and  platform  up, 
is  small,  and  the  pressure  exercised  by  it  very  strong  (from  200  to  500  tons)  ;  the 
pumps  may  therefore  work  slowly,  and  their  channels  may  be  very  small,  but  their 
bodies  must  be  able  to  withstand  a  heavy  pressure. 

The  liquid  (oil)  which  has  been  forced  into  the  jiress,  returns  to  the  pump  as 
soon  as  a  passage  is  opened  for  it,  and  can  thus  be  used  for  many  operations. 

The  pump,  represented  in  Fig.  114,  is  driven  by  a  belt,  and  stopped  automati- 

30 


234  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


cally  as  soon  as  the  desired  pressure  is  obtained.  The  force-pipes  of  the  three  pumps 
empty  into  one  common  pipe,  which  is  provided  with  a  safety-valve.  By  increasing 
or  decreasing  the  weight,  which  closes  this  safety-valve  through  the  long  lever,  on 
the  end  of  which  it  is  suspended,  any  desired  pressure,  which  the  apparatus  will  endure, 
may  be  obtained.  As  soon  as  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  against  the  safety-valve  from 
inside  becomes  greater  than  that  of  the  weight  from  outside,  it  opens,  and  forces  the 
end  of  the  lever  which  carries  the  weight  uj)wards. 

The  driving-shaft,  on  which  the  pinion  and  fly-wheel  are  mounted,  is  also  pro- 
vided with  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  and  the  fork  whicli  holds  the  belt  in  position  is 
fastened  on  a  horizontal  rod.    This  belt-shifter  is  su})ported  by  two  bearings,  and 


Fig.  114. 


carries  on  its  upper  side  a  feather,  which  fits  a  corresponding  excavation  in  the 
bearing  nearest  to  the  belt,  and  thus  prevents  the  rod  from  turning.  A  lever,  one 
end  of  which  is  listened  to  the  frame,  fits  a  notch  in  this  feather,  and  holds  the  belt- 
shifter  in  its  place  while  the  belt  is  on  the  tight  pulley.  The  front  end  of  this  lever 
is  attached  to  an  upright  rod,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  connected  with  the  safety- 
valve  lever.  Whenever  the  safety-valve  opens,  this  rod  is  moved  upwards,  raises  the 
lever  out  of  the  notch,  and  allows  the  shifter  to  move  sideways. 

In  our  drawing,  the  pumps  are  at  rest  and  the  belt  is  on  the  loose  pulley ;  but 
when  the  apparatus  is  to  be  set  in  motion,  the  shifter  must  be  pulled  back  by  the 


FINISHING. 


235 


handle  provided  for  this  purpose,  and  the  lever  allowed  to  drop  into  the  notch.  The 
pumping  continues  until  the  desired  pressure  is  reached  and  the  shifter  set  free,  when 
a  weight  at  the  end  of  a  cord,  which  runs  over  a  roll,  pulls  the  shifter,  and  with  it  the 
belt,  upon  the  loose  pulley. 

Modern  screw-presses,  as  well  as  old-fashioned  ones,  are  usually  operated  by 
means  of  long  levers  in  the  hands  of  men. 

They  are  even  at  the  present  day  preferred  in  a  few  mills  to  the  more  powerful 
and  convenient  hydraulic  presses,  because  those  of  the  latter,  which  happened  to  be 
used  there,  were  not  well  enough  constructed  to  give  satisfaction.  When  the  em- 
ployees returned  to  the  mill  in  the  morning,  after  the  pressure  had  been  put  on  and 
the  pump  stopped  on  the  previous  evening,  they  sometimes  found  that  the  liquid  had 
escaped  and  the  pressure  had  disappeared. 

Hydraulic  presses  must  be  built  so  that  the  liquid  cannot  find  an  outlet,  even 
under  prolonged  heavy  pressure ;  and  if  so,  they  are  preferable  to  all  others. 

191.  Stamping-Press. — The  pajDer  must  frequently  be  stamped  with  monograms, 
names,  or  ornaments,  and  a  stamping-press  is  therefore  a  part  of  the  equipment  of 
the  finishing-room  of  a  writing-paper  mill. 

The  following  stamping-press  seems  to  be  the  favorite  in  the  New  England 
writing-paper  mills,  and  is  well  spoken  of  by  experienced  manufacturers  as  a  sub- 


FiG.  115.  ■       Pig.  116. 


stantial  and  effective  one.  It  is  manufactured  by  E.  T.  Piper,  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  is  represented  by  a  perspective  view.  Fig.  115;  a  side  elevation.  Fig. 
116;  a  section  through  the  moving  part.  Fig.  117. 

A  in  Fig.  117  is  the  cup  which  holds  the  bottom  die;  it  can  easily  be  pushed 
out  by  a  rod  from  under  the  table.  The  steel  stamp  b  is  fastened  with  a  set-screw 
in  the  cylinder-plunger  c.    This  plunger  is  shown  in  its  most  elevated  position,  and 


236 


MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER  FROM  RAGS  BY  MACHINERY. 


with  the  spiral  spring  e  fully  extended.  When  the  plunger  moves  down,  the  upper 
end  or  collar  of  this  spring  e  descends  with  it,  the  spring  is  compressed,  and  exer- 
cises a  pressure  upward  on  the  plunger  c.   The  pendulum-lever  h  forces  the  knuckle 


Fm.  117. 


G,  and  with  it  the  stamp  b,  down  with  every  revolution  of  the  crank  and  driving- 
pulley.  This  knuckle  g  is  connected  with  the  cylinder  c  by  the  screw  d  ;  and  the 
length  of  the  whole  plunger,  including  g,  or  the  distance  between  the  stamp  and  die, 
can  be  changed  by  turning  d  further  in  or  out,  and  holding  it  in  the  desired  posi- 
tion with  the  check-nut  f. 


Chapter  IV. 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS 

SECTION  I. 
Historical  Sketch. 

192.  General  History  and  Introductory  Remarks. — All  things  relating  to  the  arts 
of  writing  and  printing  have  been  objects  of  interest  and  study  to  many  of  the  greatest 
men  of  their  times,  and  more  than  a  century  ago  they  recognized  the  necessity  of 
finding  materials  which  could  to  some  extent  take  the  place  of  rags  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper. 

Joel  Munsell,  in  his  Chronology  of  Paper  and  Paper- 3Iaking,  states  that  Jacob 
Christian  Schaeffer,  of  Ratisbon  (Regensburg,  Germany),  published,  in  1765,  a  work 
in  octavo,  upon  the  different  plants  which  he  could  transform  into  paper  without  the 
use  of  rags,  giving  specimens  from  a  large^  number  of  materials,  among  which  were 
the  coton  du  jieuplier,  hornets'  nests,  sawdust,  moss,  beech,  willow,  aspen,  mulberry, 
clematite,  and  pine,  also  from  hop  vines,  the  peelings  of  grape  vines,  hemp,  the  leaves 
of  aloes,  and  lily  of  the  valley,  froni  arroclie,  moth-wort,  masse  d'eau,  barley-straw, 
cabbage  stumps,  thistle-stalks,  burdock,  conferva,  wheat-straw,  broom  corn,  ^nd  Ba- 
varian peat. 

The  same  author  also  states  that  in  1772  there  were  two  mills  in  operation  in 
Italy  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  maize  or  Turkish  wheat ;  but  we  have  no 
account  of  their  success,  nor  that  the  manufacture  was  more  than  an  experiment. 

Christian  Schaeffer  also  printed  in  1772  a  second  book,  of  which  there  is  a  copy 
in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  Library,  containing  upwards  of  sixty  specimens  of 
paper,  made  of  different  materials,  the  result  of  his  experiments. 

The  savants  Seba,  Reaumur,  Guetard,  Gleditsch,  and  others,  had  already  before 
Dr.  Schaeffer  proposed  substitutes  for  rags. 

At  present,  when  paper  and  paper-making  have  become,  through  more  universal 
education,  matters  of  importance  to  everybody,  men,  from  almost  all  walks  of  life, 
consider  it  their  vocation  to  discover  new  substitutes  and  methods  of  working  them. 
They  have  never  studied  paper-making,  are  not  aware  that  thousands  of  the  best 
brains  have  been  racked,  and  thq,t  hardly  a  plant  exists  which  has  not  been  tried  or 
propose^  for  this  purpose.    We  observe  therefore  the  strange  phenomena-  that  now 


238 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


and  then  substances  are  proposed,  and  patents  taken  out,  for  new  processes  of  making 
paper,  which  have  perhaps  been  tried  and  condemned  many  years  ago. 

Every  earnest  contributor  to  the  progress  of  our  art  is  heartily  welcome,  but, 
guided  by  science,  the  manufacture  has  already  reached  such  a  degree  of  perfection 
that  any  real  improvement  can  only  be  made  by  those  who  have,  by  careful  study, 
acquainted  themselves  with  all  the  progressive  experiments  and  practical  trials,  which 
have  been  the  means  of  bringing  it  to  its  present  high  position. 

193.  Matthias  Koops. — The  foregoing  remarks  occurred  to  us  while  perusing  a 
book,  which  by  good  fortune  and  purchase  found  its  way  into  our  hands. 

It  was  printed  in  the  year  1801  at  London,  and  written  by  Matthias  Koops,  Esq. 
It  is  entitled,  "  Historical  Account  of  the  Substances  which  have  been  used  to  de- 
scribe Events  and  to  convey  Ideas,  from  the  Earliest  Date  to  the  Invention  of 
Paj)er.    Second  Edition." 

It  begins  with  the  following  address  to  King  George  the  Third : 

"Most  Gracious  Sovereign. 

"  Sire  :  Your  Majesty  having  been  most  graciously  pleased  to  grant  me  patents  for  extracting 
printing  and  written  ink  from  waste  paper  by  reducing  it  to  a  pulp,  and  converting  it  into  white  paper, 
fit  for  writing,  printing,  and  for  other  purposes ;  and  also  for  manufacturing  paper  from  straw,  hay, 
thistles,  waste,  and  refuse  of  hemp  and  flax,  and  different  kinds  of  wood  and  bark,  fit  for  printing,  and 
almost  all  other  purposes  for  which  paper  is  used. 

"  And  Your  Majesty  having,  in  September  last  year,  condescended  to  permit  me  to  lay  at  your  feet 
the  first  useful  paper  which  has  ever  been  made  from  straw  alone,  without  any  addition  of  rags ;  the 
gracious  reception  it  has  met  with  from  Your  Majesty,  the  approbation  of  the  public,  and  the  encourage- 
ment which  the  legislature  has  given  me  by  passing  an  Act  of  Parliament  in  its  favor,  has  engaged 
me  to  reprint  these  lines  on  paper  manufactured  from  straw  solely  in  a  more  improved  state,  although 
not  yet  brought  to  such  a  state  of  perfection  as  it  will  be  made  in  a  regular  manufacture,  which  must 
be  entirely  constructed  for  such  purpose,  and  which  I  most  humbly  flatter  myself  will  now  much 
sooner  be  established  by  the  indulgence  which  your  Majesty's  Parliament  has  granted  me.  This  new 
essay  proves  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  that  good  and  useful  paper  can  be  made  from  straw  alone. 

"  The  favorable  manner  in  which  Your  Majesty  has  deigned  to  look  on  these,  my  humble  attempts 
of  discovery,  shall  be  a  constant  incitement  to  future  exertions,  and  the  prospect  of  meriting  commen- 
dation of  a  king,  always  ready  to  countenance  the  most  humble  endeavors  which  tend  to  the  common 
welfare,  and  who  has  proved  himself  the  illustrious  patron  and  protector  of  arts  and  sciences,  obliges 
me  to  unremitted  perseverance  to  bring  my  attempts  to  perfection  in  the  prospect  of  meriting  Your 
Majesty's  commendation,  which  will  be  the  greatest  pleasure  I  can  be  sensible  of. 

"  With  the  most  ardent  wishes  for  your  Majesty's  health  and  longevity,  and  with  all  possible  def- 
erence and  humility,  I  beg  leave.  Most  Gracious  Sovereign,  to  subscribe  myself, 

"Your  Majesty's  most  devoted,  most  obedient, 

and  most  humble  servant, 

"17  Jamks  Street,  Buckingham  Gate,  "Matthias  Koops. 

"August  30th,  1801." 

We  read  on  page  250  to  253 : 

"  I  have  had  the  satisfaction  to  witness  the  establishment  of  an  extensive  paper-manufactory  since 
the  first  of  May,  1800,  at  the  Neckinger  Mill,  Bermondsey,  where  my  invention  of  remanufacturing 
paper  is  carried  on  with  great  success,  and  where  there  are  already  more  than  700  reams  weekly  manu- 


mSTOBICAL  SKETCH. 


239 


■  factured,  of  perfectly  clean  and  white  paper,  made  without  any  addition  of  rags,  from  old  waste, 
written,  and  printed  paper,  by  which  the  public  has  already  beeii  benefited  so  far  that  the  price  of 
paper  has  not  risen  otherwise  than  by  the  additional  duty  thereupon  and  the  increased  price  of  labor. 
And  it  will  not  be  many  weeks  before  double  that  quantity  will  be  manufactured  at  the  said  mill. 

"  Thus  far  succeeding,  my  other  more  extended  views,  in  assiduously  endeavoring  to  manufacture 
the  most  perfect  paper  from  straw,  wood,  and  other  vegetables,  have  been  likewise  successful.  And  I 
am  able  to  produce  to  the  public  very  strong  and  fine  pajier  made  thereof,  without  any  addition  of 
other  known  paper-stuff,  notwithstanding  I  have  not  yet  had  the  advantage  of  making  it  in  a  mill 
regularly  built  for  such  a  new  undertaking.  The  paper  whereupon  this  is  printed  is  an  undeniable 
proof.  It  is,  however,  only  of  an  inferior  quality,  being  made  from  the  straw  in  the  state  it  comes 
from  the  farm-yard,  without  assorting  the  weeds  and  those  parts  of  the  straw  which  have  been  colored 
by  the  weather.  I  have  used  this  kind  of  paper  on  purpose  to  demonstrate  the  progress  of  so  singular 
an  undertaking,  and  to  prove  its  possibility  to  the  world,  notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  many  scien- 
tific men,  particularly  that  of  the  ingenious  Breitkopf  at  Leijxsic,  that  paper  made  from  straw  caimot 
be  used  for  printing.  This  specimen,  and  others  of  a  much  finer  quality  which  have  been  manufac- 
tured, leave  no  doubt  that,  when  the  manufactory  has  been  regularly  established  with  the  necessary 
implements,  I  shall  make  straw  paper  in  as  great  perfection  as  any  made  from  rags,  and  by  several 
trials  which  I  have  made  to  change  the  yellow  color  into  cream  color  and  white,  it  seems  to  be  unques- 
tionably practicable,  which  will  extend  its  consumption,  and  remove  the  prejudices  which  are  generally 
cherished  against  new  discoveries,  notwithstanding  its  natural  color  is  not  only  pleasing,  but  grateful 
to  the  eye  for  writing  and  printing,  principally  for  music  notes  by  candlelight.  Copper-plate  printers 
assert  that  it  takes  the  impression  superior  to  French  copper-plate  paper,  and  it  has  a  beautiful  effect 
in  landscapes  and  pictures,  for  drawing  and  paper-hangings. " 

On  the  title-page  is  found  the  following  sentence : 

"  Printed  on  paper  re-made  from  old  printed  and  written  paper." 

And  in  several  other  places  it  is  said  that  part  of  the  edition  is  printed  on  straw 
paper. 

The  paper  of  the  copy  in  our  possession  is  even  now,  after  seventy  years,  per- 
fectly white  and  of  good  quality. 

The  straw  paper,  on  which  a  portion  of  the  edition  is  printed,  is  strong  and 
tough,  but  of  a  light-brown  color,  similar  to  straw  wrapping-paper,  on  which,  how- 
ever, the  printed  matter  can  easily  be  read. 

The  last  fifteen  pages  of  the  book  are  printed  on  paper  made  entirely  of  wood ; 
it  has  the  color  of  light  Manilla,  and  is  rather  rough. 

The  wood  has  evidently  not  been  thoroughly  reduced  to  pure  fibres,  but  never- 
theless the  paper  is  strong  and  tough,  and  the  printing  shows  well  upon  it. 

The  first  part  of  the  Appendix  is  interesting,  because  it  shows  how  well  its 
author  discerned  the  future  development  of  the  art.    It  reads  as  follows : 

■  "  As  an  Appendix  to  this  little  tract,  I  think  it  proper  to  submit  a  few  more  remarks  on  the 
national  importance  of  discovering  materials  which  can  be  converted  into  paper,  and  grow  sufficiently 
abundant  in  Great  Britain,  without  the  necessity  of  importing  them  from  foreign  countries. 

"The  following  lines  are  printed  upon  paper  made  from  wood  alone,  the  produce  of  this  country, 
without  any  intermixture  of  rags,  waste  paper,  bark,  straw,,  or  any  other  vegetable  substance,  from 
which  paper  might  be,  or  .has  hitherto  been  manufactured  ;  and  of  this  the  most  ample  testimony  can 
be  given  if  necessary. 

"  Having  thus  far  succeeded  in  my  researches  to  make  an  useful  paper  from  one  kind  of  wood,  I 


240 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


doubt  not  but  that  I  shall  fiud  many  others  equally  eligible  for  the  same  purpose,  of  which  I  trust  it 
will  be  in  niy  power,  within  a  few  weeks,  to  give  indisputable  proof  that  my  expectations  have  been 
well  founded,  and  that  I  have  not  cherished  a  visionary  opinion. 

"  History  furnishes  us  with  numerous  examples  of  one  discovery  giving  birth  to  others,  and  if 
my  success  of  having  increased  the  quantity  of  pajier  materials,  by  rendering  these  applicable  to  that 
which  have  never  been  before  applied  to  such  a  purpose,  should  incite  active  and  industrious  artists  to 
make  farther  improvements  in  their  various  manufactures,  my  feelings  will  be  amply  gratified.  Various 
hints  may  be  suggested  to  those  who  are  already  acquainted  with  the  properties  of  paper,  when  passed 
in  lamina  on  each  other ;  it  may,  by  this  means,  be  made  to  form  a  substance  as  durable  and  more 
impenetrable  than  oak. 

"  Having  long  admired  the  celebrated  manufacture  of  Mr.  Clay  at  Birmingham,  who  has  demon- 
strated to  what  perfection  and  beauty  it  has  been  brought,  it  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  perhaps  not  be 
surprising  to  find  that  objects  of  greater  consequence  will  engage  their  attention  in  the  same  pursuit, 
and  prove  that  the  properties  from  successive  layers  of  paper  may  be  found  a  substitute  for  many  pur- 
poses for  which  at  present  foreign  wood  is  required. 

"  One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  improvement  and  extension  of  this  art  has  been  probably 
the  scarcity  of  the  raw  materials.  Now  that  these  are  found  at  home  in  sufficient  abundance,  means 
may  be  found  to  supply  manufacturers  with  any  quantity  required,  at  reduced  prices. 

"  It  may  probably  be  ultimately  proved  that  paper  thus  prepared  will  be  a  lighter,  neater,  and 
more  durable  covering  for  buildings  of  all  kinds,  and  it  is  equally  true  that  the  ingredients  with  which 
the  cement  can  be  composed  will  render  this  substance  not  only  incombustible,  but  more  durable  than 
slates,  tiles  (which  in  the  course  of  time  become  brittle),  and  wood  in  its  natural  state,  and  incorrupt- 
ible by  insects.  Who  can  say  that  coach-makers,  chair-makers,  and  cabinet-makers  will  not  make  use 
of  it  for  carriages,  chairs,  and  elegant  household  furniture,  and  reflect  that  a  substance  possessing  such 
superior  properties  ought  to  be  preferred,  having  flexibility,  hardness,  and  capability  of  being  worked 
with  infinite  greater  neatness  and  lustre  than  wood,  which  is  so  much  affected  by  the  air  and  weather. 
Converting  wood,  straw,  and  other  vegetable  substances  into  paper  may  therefore  be  rendered  useiul 
for  a  variety  of  purposes ;  and  the  substance  of  the  wood  paper,  on  which  these  lines  are  printed  (which 
is  the  first  attempt  to  make  it  in  a  quantity),  exhibits  an  indisputable  proof  that  useful  paper  may  be 
manufactured  from  the  hardest  part  of  M'ood  alone,  destitute  of  its  pith  or  bark,  and,  if  any  of  the 
suggestions  here  stated,  as  to  the  application  of  the  manufactured  material,  should  be  thought  reason- 
able, experiments  of  some  able  manufacturers  will  prove  that  this  paper  can  be  again  converted  into 
a  substance,  more  hard  and  durable  than  any  wood  of  natural  growth." 

194.  The  Principal  Substitutes  of  the  Present  Time. — The  efforts  of  Jacob  Christian 
Schaeffer,  Matthias  Koops,  and  others,  have  been  improved  upon,  so  that  waste  paper, 
straw,  wood,  esparto,  cane,  and  several  other  vegetable  substances  of  less  importance, 
are  at  present  used  in  large  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  j^aper. 

We  shall  treat  of  these  substitutes  in  the  following  order : 

Section  II.  Fibres  or  cellulose.-— This  Section  does  not  treat  of  any  j^articular 
raw  material,  but  of  the  elementary  substance  which  forms  the  body  of  all  our 
j)aper. 

Section     III,  Waste  paper. 
Section     IV.  Straw. 
Section      V.  Esparto. 
Section    VI.  Wood. 

Section  VII.  Mechanically  prepared  wood-pulp. 
Section  VIII.  Cane. — Jute  and  Manilla. 


FIBBES  OR  CELLULOSE. 


241 


SECTION  II. 

Fibres  or  Cellulose. 

195.  Chemical  Composition  and  Formation. — The  body  of  every  plant  consists  prin- 
cipally of  infinitely  small  tubes  or  cylinders,  called  cells.  Their  forms  and  combina- 
tions are  of  endless  variety,  but  they  always  contain,  chemically,  the  same  proportions 
of  carbon  (C),  hydrogen  (H),  and  oxygen  (O).  Their  substance  is  called  cellulose 
(CiaHiuOio),  and,  when  pure,  is  a  white,  slightly  transparent  body,  of  a  brilliant  appear- 
ance, like  silk,  without  either  smell  or  taste,  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.52.  It  is  com- 
j)Osed  of — 

12  atoms  of  carbon  (atomic  weight  6),     72,  or  44.45  per  cent. 

10       "       hydrogen  (atomic  weight  1),  10,  "  6.17 

10      "       oxygen  (atomic  weight  8),     80,  "    49.39  " 

162,  or  100.01  " 

This  composition  is  confirmed  by  the  proportions  of  the  atoms  contained  in  the 
wood  of  a  number  of  trees. 

Chevaudier  has  found  them,  for — 


Beech. 

Oak. 

Birch. 

Aspeu. 

Willow. 

Carbon  (C), 

49.89 

50.64 

50.61 

50.31 

51.75 

Hydrogen  (H), 

6.07 

6.03 

6.23 

6.32 

6.19 

Oxygen  (0), 

43.11 

42.04 

42.04 

42.39 

41.08 

Nitrogen  (N), 

0.93 

1.29 

1.12 

0.98 

0.98 

These  analytic  results  show  that  the  atomic  composition  of  trees  or  wood  is  very 
nearly  like  that  of  pure  cellulose,  and  it  must  be  concluded  that  wood  consists  almost 
altogether  of  cellulose  and  of  substances  which  are  isomeric  with  it. 

Tunicsin,  starch,  dextrin,  gum,  and  several  other  substances,  are  isomeric  with 
cellulose  ;  that  is,  they  are  composed  of  the  same  j^roportions  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  but  their  atoms  are  differently  grouped,  and  make  up  bodies  widely  different 
in  qualities  and  appearance.  (The  most  generally  known  examples  of  isomeric 
bodies  are  the  formations  of  pure  carbon :  diamond,  plumbago,  and  charcoal.) 

The  reduction  of  vegetable  matters  to  fibres  is  more  readily  understood  by  a 
contemplation  of  the  work  of  nature  in  building  up  and  decomposing  them.  » 

The  animal  and  vegetable  worlds  work  for  each  other ;  all  animals  inhale,  and 
every  burning  fire  consumes  oxygen  (O) ;  they  load  it  with  carbon,  and  return  it  to  the 

31 


242 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


atmosphere  as  carbonic  acid  (CO2).  The  green  parts  of  all  plants  absorb  this  carbonic 
acid,  decompose  it  again  into  its  elements,  retaining  the  carbon  and  exhaling  the 
oxygen.  Carbon,  which  has  been  extracted  from  the  food  of  animals,  is  presented  to 
the  oxygen  in  the  lungs  through  the  medium  of  the  blood,  transformed  into  carbonic 
acid,  and  thus  returned  to  the  plants  for  the  formation  of  new  food. 

The  elements  of  carbonic  acid,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and  those  of  water,  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  meet  in  plants,  and  are  so  grouped  by  the  action  of  the  latter,  that 
they  furnish  a  liquid  substance  or  sap,  which  descends  into  the  stem  and  solidifies  into 
cells  or  cellulose  in  proportion  as  it  loses  its  oxygen.  The  principal  component  of 
this  sap  is  glucose  (grape-sugar),  consisting  of — 

6C    +    5H    +    50    +  HO 

Carbon.      Hydrogen.      Oxygen.  Water. 

which,  having  once  been  formed  in  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  is  forwarded  to  the  centre, 
and  transformed  into  cellulose,  creating  the  rings,  which  indicate  by  their  number  as 
many  years'  growth. 

The  roots  take  up  the  mineral  substances,  and  the  bark  consists  of  the  impurities 
which  are  thrown  out  by  the  forming  wood. 

The  changes  of  glucose  into  cellulose  may  be  explained  as  follows  : 

Cellulose  being  put  at  24C  +  20H  +  20O  +  water, 

1  atom  of  glucose  is  represented  by  6C  +  5H  +  5  0    water  (HO). 

2  atoms  of  glucose  give  12C  +  lOH  +  10  O  +  HO,  or  dextrin. 
1  atom  of  glucose  and  1  of  dextrin  give      18C  +  15H  +  15  0  +  HO,  or  starch. 

1  atom  of  glucose  and  1  of  starch  give        24C  +  20H  +  20  O  +  HO,  or  cellulose. 
1  atom  of  glucose  and  1  of  cellulose  give     30C  +  25H  +  25  0  +  HO,  or  bicellulose. 

and  so  on ;  every  additional  atom  of  glucose  producing  a  higher  concentration  of 
cellulose  or  tenser  and  harder  wood,  such  as  tri,  quarto,  &c., — cellulose. 

All  of  the  compounds  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon  are  the  more  soluble,  as 
they  contain  more  oxygen  (O) ,  and  form  into  solid  bodies  as  they  lose  it.  To  dissolve 
them,  nature  just  reverses  the  process  of  their  formation;  it  adds  oxygen,  and  decom- 
poses them  again  into  carbonic  acid  and  water. 

Ulmic  acid  is  produced  in  decaying  plants  by  slow  oxidation,  and  assists  in  the 
solution  of  the  intercellulose  or  substances  surrounding  the  fibres.  This  is  done  at 
the  ordinary  temperature,  and  with  only  an  insignificant  amount  of  alkali ;  while  we 
require  a  high  temperature  and  large  amounts  of  alkali  to  do  the  same  thing  arti- 
ficially, but  in  a  short  time. 

Nature  seems  to  indicate  hereby  that  not  only  temperature  and  alkali  are  to  be 
considered  in  the  preparation  of  vegetable  fibre  for  paper,  but  that  time  also  is  to  play 
a  very  important  part,  and  that  either  of  the  former  or  both  may  be  reduced  if  the 
latter  can  be  sufficiently  increased  to  make  up  for  that  reduction. 


FIB  EES  OB  CELLULOSE. 


243 


It  is  in  all  cases  very  difficult  to  find  the  point  at  which  all  the  substances  which 
surround  the  fibres  are  dissolved,  while  the  fibres  may  yet  remain  uninjured. 

Flax,  hemp,  and  cotton  rags  consist  of  pure  fibres  only,  with  the  addition  of  fat, 
color,  gluten,  and  impurities ;  but  the  substitutes,  which  are  used  in  their  original  form, 
contain  incrusting,  glutinous,  resinous,  and  silicious  matters,  amounting  sometimes  to 
one-half  or  more  of  their  weight,  which  must  be  eliminated  if  the  pure  fibres  be  required. 
The  same  agents  which  dissolve  them  will  also  destroy  the  fibres  if  time  and  opportunity 
be  given ;  but  fortunately  the  cellulose  resists  their  influence  much  longer  than  any 
other  part,  and,  guided  by  experience,  it  is  possible  to  regulate  the  operations  so  that 
the  larger  part  of  the  fibres  can  be  obtained  in  a  pure  state. 

196.  Mechanical  Formation  and  Appearance. — Microscopic  examination  shows  that 
the  fibres  of  various  plants  are  differently  formed. 

The  single  flax  fibre  consists  of  one  long,  thin,  cylindrical  cell  of  about  ^-g^j, 
inch  diameter,  with  a  very  fine  channel  all  through  it,  and  is  very  tough  and  elastic. 
The  action  of  the  beating-engine  has  for  its  object  to  crush  in  the  sides  of  these 
cylinders,  so  as  to  render  them  in  every  direction  more  flexible ;  and  they  produce  a 
very  strong  paper,  even  if  the  fibres  have  been  cut  up  info  short  pieces  by  the  opera- 
tion.   Hemp  has  a  similar  fibre,  only  stronger,  thicker,  and  with  a  wider  channel. 

Cotton  has  a  long  fibre,  which  becomes  flat  while  drying,  and  twists  upon  its 
axis.  This  twist  makes  it  bulkier,  and  is  the  cause  of  its  forming  a  rather  spongy 
paper. 

Straw  yields  a  rather  stiff,  nearly  round,  tubular  fibre,  with  pointed  ends,  about 
j\  of  one  inch  in  length. 

The  fibres  of  the  evergreen  coniferous  woods,  such  as  yellow  and  white  pine, 
hemlock,  &c.,  somewhat  resemble  cotton ;  they  are  dotted,  long,  flat,  tape-like,  bend 
easily  in  one  plane  only,  and  are,  especially  yellow  pine,  of  considerable  length. 

The  deciduous  woods,  such  as  poplar,  hickory,  ash,  cherry,  &c.,  yield  a  fibre 
averaging  about  j\  of  one  inch  in  length  and  somewhat  over  inch  diameter, 
tubular,  with  pointed  ends,  and,  if  perfectly  free  from  incrust  or  resinous  matters, 
very  flexible  and  with  but  little  elasticity ;  but  if  coated  with  intercellular  matter, 
they  become  very  stiff",  and  are  apt  to  break  when  forcibly  bent. 

Some  of  the  woods  have  longer  fibres,  but  cannot  produce  so  good  a  paper  as 
flax  or  hemp,  because  they  have  less  inherent  strength  and  flexibility. 

The  comparative  strength  of  papers  made  of  a  certain  kind  of  raw  material 
depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  length  of  the  fibres  obtained  from  it.  But  in  com- 
paring the  value  of  different  materials,  the  inherent  qualities  of  their  fibres  seem  to 
be  of  more  importance.  The  cells  of  which  they  are  composed  should  be  fiexible,  so 
that  they  can  intertwine  and  felt  themselves  easily.  The  cell-walls  of  some  of  our 
best  fibres  are  not  bare  inside,  but  clothed  all  over  with  projecting  parts,  filling  the 
cylinders  with  an  elastic  mass,  which  acts  like  a  spiral  spring  and  prevents  the  walls 
from  breaking,  when  they  are  bent. 

The  incrusting  matter,  if  not  thoroughly  removed,  thickens  the  walls  of  the 


244 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


fibre-tubes,  or  binds  several  of  them  together.  These  thickened  fibres  or  fibre- 
bundles  have  little  flexibility,  and  partake  more  of  the  stiff  and  unwieldy  nature  of 
straw  or  wood. 

We  add  here,  from  William  Allen  Miller's  Yemenis  of  Chemistry,  Ijondon, 
1869,  the  following  description  of  the  mechanical  and  chemical  formation  of  the 
cellulose,  or,  as  he  prefers  to  call  it,  cellulin : 

"  If  a  thin  slice  of  wood  be  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  is  immediately  apparent  that  it  is 
not  a  homogeneous  structure,  but  that  it  is  composed  of  a  cellular  or  fibrous  substance,  the  texture  of 
which  assumes  a  different  appearance,  accoi"ding  as  the  slice  has  been  cut  across  the  grain  of  the  wood 
or  parallel  to  it.  This  ligneous  fibre,  or  true  woody  matter,  consists,  according  to  the  researches  of 
Payen,  of  two  essentially  distinct  portions.  One  of  these  has  received  the  name  of  cellulose ;  it  consti- 
tutes the  basement-tissue  found  in  all  vegetables ;  it  occurs  nearly  pure  in  cotton,  linen,  elder  pith,  and 
in  the  pith  of  the  Aralia  papyrifera,  from  which  rice-paper  is  prepared.  The  other  portion  is  a  deposit 
of  incrusting  matter,  which  lines  the  interior  of  these  cellules  in  amorphous  layers,  varying  in  thickness 
according  to  the  age  or  character  of  the  ligneous  substance. 

"  Cellular  tissue  forms  the  groundwork  of  eveiy  plant,  and,  when  obtained  in  its  pure  state,  its 
composition  is  the  same,  whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of  the  plant  which  furnished  it,  though  it 
may  vary  greatly  in  appearance  and  physical  characters.  For  instance,  it  is  loose  and  spongy  in  the 
succulent  shoots  of  germinating  seeds,  and  in  the  roots  of  plants,  such  as  the  turnip  and  potato ;  it  is 
porous  and  elastic  in  the  pith  of  the  rush  and  the  elder ;  it  is  flexible  and  tenacious  in  the  fibres  of 
hemp  and  flax ;  it  is  compact  in  the  branches  and  wood  of  growing  trees,  and  it  becomes  very  hard 
and  dense  in  the  shells  of  the  filbert,  the  peach,  the  cocoanut,  and  the  Phytelephas  or  vegetable  ivory. 
Vegetable  cellular  tissue  in  its  succulent  form  is  easily  digestible,  but,  when  it  has  become  compact 
and  incrusted  with  true  woody  matter,  as  in  the  husks  of  the  seed  and  in  the  hard  portions  of  the 
stems,  and  even  when  simply  condensed  into  tenacious  fibres,  like  those  of  hemp  and  flax,  it  is  no 
longer  digestible,  or  in  a  condition  to  serve  as  nutriment  to  the  higher  orders  of  animals." 

From  the  foregoing,  it  follows :  that  plants  are  in  the  same  proportion  more 
unfit  to  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  as  they  are  more  valuable  as  food  for 
animals. 

"  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  obtain  cellulose  free  from  ligneous  tissue  by  artificial  means,  since  the 
incrusting,  woody  matter,  when  once  deposited  within  its  meshes,  is  retained  with  great  obstinacy,  but 
it  is  presented  in  a  pure  condition  in  finely-carded  cotton,  in  linen,  and  in  the  finest  kinds  of  filtering- 
paper.  To  these  sources  the  chemist  usually  has  recourse  when  he  desires  to  examine  the  projierties  of 
cellulin. 

"  Pure  cellulin  is  a  white  tasteless  substance,  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  or  oils.  It  is  heavier 
than  water ;  its  fibres  are  transparent,  and  exert  a  depolarizing  influence  upon  a  ray  of  polarized  light. 
A  solution  of  well-washed,  freshly-jDrecipitated,  hydrated  cupric  oxide,  or  cupric  carbonate,  in  dilute 
ammonia,  dissolves  the  fibre  in  most  of  its  forms,  though  in  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  the  rice-paper,  this 
solution  does  not  take  place  until  the  vegetable  fibre  has  been  boiled  with  diluted  acids.  Cellulin  is 
precipitated  from  the  cupric  solution,  unaltered  in  composition,  on  acidulating  the  solution  with  an 
acid.  Cold,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it,  and  produces  a  treacly-looking  liquid,  converting 
it  after  dilution  and  boiling,  first  into  dextrin,  and  subsequently  into  grape  sugar.  Weak  acids  exert 
but  little  effect  on  cellulin,  but  the  action  of  these  and  of  all  other  solvents  is  materially  greater  upon 
the  recently-formed  cellules  than  upon  the  old  ones.  By  prolonged  boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
the  less  compact  forms  of  cellulin  are  gradually  converted  into  glucose.    Hydrochloric  acid  in  its  con- 


FIBRES  OR  CELLULOSE.  245 

centrated  form  dissolves  cellulin,  and  deposits  it  on  immediate  dilution  with  water ;  but  if  it  be  left 
undiluted  for  two  or  three  days,  no  precipitate  occurs  on  the  addition  of  water.  Alkaline  liquids,  when 
dilute,  do  not  act  upon  cellulin,  but  when  concentrated  they  gradually  destroy  its  texture.  According 
to  Peligot,  if  cellulin  be  moistened  with  water  and  submitted  to  distillation  with  an  equal  weight  of 
solid,  caustic  potash,  wood  spirit  distils  over,  and  potassic  oxalate  is  formed  in  the  residue.  A  solution 
of  chlorine  acts  but  very  slowly  upon  cellulin," 

The  same  author  says  in  a  subsequent  article  on  Paper-making: 

"  An  excess  of  chlorine  must  be  carefully  avoided,  because  it  is  liable  to  enter  into  chemical  com- 
bination with  the  fibre,  and,  by  displacing  a  portion  of  the  hydrogen,  to  form  a  substitution  compound, 
which,  being  destitute  of  tenacity,  furnishes  a  brittle  paper." 

197.  Conclusions. — The  usefulness  of  a  plant  for  the  purpose  of  making  white 
paper  depends  uj^on  the  nature  of  its  fibres,  upon  the  proportion  of  cellulose  contained 
in  it,  and  upon  the  expense  at  which  this  can  be  freed  from  the  incrusting  matters  or 
intercellulose. 

Many  coarse  papers,  such  as  wraj^ping,  or  boards,  permit  of  the  use  of  fibrous 
plants  in  the  original  state,  even  if  they  contain  only  a  small  proportion  of  fibres. 
Some  kinds  of  swamp-grass,  for  instance,  which  could  not  profitably  be  transformed 
into  white  paper,  are  extensively  used  for  this  class.  Their  component  parts,  other 
than  cellulose,  which  would  have  to  be  eliminated  for  the  manufacture  of  white  paper, 
enter  into  the  body  of  the  wrappers  or  boards. 


246 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


SECTION  III. 
Waste-Papee. 

198.  Trade  and  General  Assortment. — Waste-paper,  tlie  shoddy  of  the  paper- 
manufacturer,  is  next  in  importance  to  rags,  as  it  is  already  prepared  pulp,  the  sur- 
face of  which  only  requires  cleaning.  The  supj^ly  of  this  material  increases  in  the 
same  proi:»ortion  as  that  of  paper  generally ;  it  should  and  will  be  saved  in  every 
household  as  well  as  rags. 

In  this  country  and  in  England,  where  the  price  is  high  enough  to  offer  induce- 
ments for  its  preservation,  enormous  quantities  are  gathered  and  worked  up. 

We  have  already  shown  that  this  material  was  remanufactured  by  Matthias 
Koops,  over  seventy  years  ago,  and  yet  it  has  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  been 
appreciated  to  any  extent  and  generally  used. 

Wrapping-paper,  made  of  straw  and  other  cheap  materials,  and  paper  bags  have 
taken  the  place  of  old  books  and  newspapers  in  the  stores,  for  the  purpose  of  packing 
\iY>  goods,  and  the  increasing  demand  has  caused  old  paper  to  be  saved,  where  it 
would  formerly  have  been  considered  useful  only  to  kindle  a  fire. 

Waste-paper  is  sorted  like  rags  into  a  good  many  qualities. 

The  cuttings  of  new  white  paper  make  up  the  highest  class,  and  are  called  tvhite 
shavings;  they  are  subdivided  into  hard  or  sized  and  soft  or  unsized  shavings. 
Colored  shavings  are  the  cuttings  of  colored  paper. 

Paper  without  printer's  ink,  but  only  writing  fluid  on  its  surface,  such  as  old 
blank-books  and  letters,  is  highly  valued,  but  found  only  in  comparatively  small 
quantities, — another  evidence  of  the  daily  increasing  importance  of  the  printing 
press. 

Printed  papers  are  divided  into  three  classes : 

The  first  one  contains  the  best  qualities  of  clean  printed  papers,  such  as  books 
deprived  of  their  covers  and  backs,  letters,  blank-books,  and  others,  which  may  be 
partially  printed  upon.    It  is  called  No.  1  imperfections. 

The  second  class  consists  of  clean  newspapers,  pamphlets,  and  other  waste  of 
white  printed  paper,    It  is  called  No.  2  iynperfections,  or  No.  1  prints. 

Soiled  printed  or  writing  papers,  which  have  once  been  white,  make  up  the  third 
class,  or  No.  2  p)rints. 

Manilla  papers,  board  cuttings,  wrapping  papers,  and  any  other  kind  of  which 
enough  can  be  gathered,  are  put  up  separately,  and  form  as  many  different  grades. 


> 


WASTE -PAPER.  247 

The  subdivisions,  according  to  quality  and  cleanness  of  the  stock,  are  nearly 
as  numerous  as  those  for  rags. 

Waste  paper  is  shipped  like  rags  in  bales,  which  weigh  from  300  to  800  pounds, 
and  there  are  as  many  tricks  practiced  in  this  trade  as  in  the  sale  of  rags. 

Sometimes  we  find  the  best  stock  on  the  outside,  and  a  very  poor  lot  in  the 
centre  of  the  bale,  or  the  papers  may  be  moist  from  the  addition  of  water.  As  the 
bales  are  mostly  sold  by  their  gross  weight,  they  are  sometimes  covered  with  a  large 
quantity  of  cheap,  heavy  bagging. 

Experience  only,  can  teach  how  and  where  to  buy. 

199.  Dusting  and  Sorting. — The  treatment  of  old  j)aper  in  the  mill  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  rags,  but,  while  the  latter  can  be  reduced  to  their  single  component  fibres 
only  by  the  use  of  much  power,  old  paper  is  already  prepared  pulp,  which  has  only 
to  be  cleaned  on  the  surface,  and  washed  and  brushed  in  the  engine,  to  be  ready  for 
the  machine. 

Old  papers  are  always  more  or  less  mixed  with  rags,  twine,  or  threads,  which 
would  require  severe  beating  to  be  transformed  into  pulp.  But  as  they  can  only 
receive  a  slight  brushing  in  company  with  the  paj^ers,  they  appear  in  the  finished 
pulp  in  nearly  their  original  form,  and  are  a  source  of  constant  trouble. 

Everything  which  has  not  once  been  white  j)ulp  must  be  carefully  sorted  out, 
especially  yellow  straw,  or  dark  wrapping-paper.  Dealers  never  sort  so  carefully 
that  some  of  these  may  not  find  their  way  into  the  bales,  and  if  allowed  to  become 
mixed  with  the  pulp,  they  will  be  ground  up,  and  appear  in  the-  finished  paper  as 
numerous  yellow,  gray,  or  colored  spots. 

Many  sheets,  especially  in  the  prints,  are  folded  or  bundled  up  into  rolls,  in  which 
pens,  dirt,  or  seeds  of  some  fruit,  may  often  be  found.  All  waste-paper,  even  of  the  best 
qualities,  sticks  closely  together,  and  must  be  opened  and  separated  into  distinct  j^ieces; 
nothing  does  this  more  effectually  than  a  rag  devil  or  a  railroad-duster ;  it  knocks 
the  papers  apart,  and  all  the  heavy,  small  impurities  fall  through  the  wire  or  grate. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  with  waste-paper,  when  taken  from  a  bale,  is  there- 
fore to  run  it  through  a  devil  and  duster.  If  this  is  Avell  done,  the  papers  will  reach 
the  sorters,  opened  out  into  single  sheets,  free  from  dust  and  all  small  impurities,  and 
torn  into  convenient  sizes.  They  can  be  assorted  more  thoroughly  and  in  a  shorter 
time,  and,  being  free  from  dust,  are  less  objectionable  than  the  stock  taken  directly 
from  the  bales. 

A  railroad-duster,  of  the  kind  represented  by  Figs.  12  and  13,  connected  by  an 
apron,  with  an  open  cylinder-duster,  of  the  kinds  shown  in  Figs.  9  and  10,  or  11,  are 
frequently  used ;  the  first  opens  the  papei's,  and  the  second  gives  them  time  to 
throw  off  the  impurities.  In  mills,  where  these  paj^ers  constitute  the  only  raw  mate- 
rial for  the  manufacture  of  better  grades,  such  as  book  paper,  as  many  as  three  of 
these  dusting-machines  are  sometimes  used  in  connection. 

The  sorting-rooms  for  waste-paper  have  the  same  general  appearance  as  those 
for  rags,  with  the  difference  that  no  knives  are  used,  as  no  cutting  is  required. 


248 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


Some  mills,  which  use  waste-paper  exclusively,  sort  it  into  at  least  the  following 
grades : 

White  No.  1  shavings. 
White  No.  2  shavings. 
Colored  shavings. 
White  letters. 
Blue  letters. 
Book  paper. 

No.  1  prints,  consisting  principally  of  clean  newspapers. 
No.  2  prints,  consisting  principally  of  soiled  newspapers. 
Colored  papers. 
Boards  and  wrapping  paper. 

All  these  papers,  except  the  last  class,  are  subsequently  boiled  with  soda,  and  it 
has  been  observed  that  many  newspapers  and  lower  grades  of  books  or  pamphlets, 
which  seem  to  be  made  of  esparto,  or  some  kind  of  wood,  turn  yellow-brown  under- 
its  influence.  The  presence  of  such  papers  injures  the  color  in  spite  of  all  bleaching, 
and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  they  should  be  sorted  out,  and  worked  into  lower 
grades  of  paper. 

It  requires  much  experience  to  judge  from  their  appearance,  which  papers  are 
made  of  esparto  or  wood,  and  sometimes  it  is  altogether  impossible.  A  basin,  with  a 
strong  solution  of  soda,  is  therefore  kept  in  the  sorting-room,  and  whenever  there 
is  any  doubt  as  to  the  composition  of  a  piece  of  paper,  it  is  simply  dipped  into  the 
basin.  If  the  soda  turns  it  yellow  or  brown,  it  belongs  to  No.  2,  but  if  it  has  no 
effect  on  the  color,  it  goes  into  No,  1. 

After  this  experiment  has  been  often  tried,  the  sorters  will  be  able  to  recognize 
the  nature  of  the  raw  material  of  which  the  paper  has  been  made,  more  precisely,  and 
have  recourse  to  the  test  only  in  excejjtional  cases. 

One  experienced  woman  can  sort  500  to  1000  pounds  of  the  ordinary  class  of 
prints  or  imperfections  per  day. 

200.  Boiling. — The  extraction  of  ink  and  fat  by  boiling  is  the  next  operation. 

Writing  ink  can  be  extracted  with  water  alone,  but  a  solution  of  soda  is  required 
for  printing  ink. 

If  a  rotary  is  used  for  this  purpose,  the  ojDeration  is  carried  on  exactly  as  with 
rags,  but  instead  of  lime,  a  solution  of  soda,  or  better,  of  caustic  soda,  is  added  to  the 
papers. 

The  motion  of  the  rotary  boiler,  slow  as  it  may  be,  causes  friction,  and,  aided  by 
the  liquid  and  heat,  reduces  a  portion  of  the  papers  to  pulp. 

The  fibres  of  this  pulp  are  in  the  most  reduced  state  or  division,  and  the  steam, 
in  blowing  off,  cannot  fail  to,  and  does  carry  off  some  of  them  mechanically.  While 
the  pajDers  are  washed,  another  and  larger  portion  of  these  fine  fibres  escajies  with  the 
wash-water. 

The  solution  of  soda  destroys  the  printing  ink  by  dissolving  its  fat,  but  it  also 
assumes  the  color  of  the  ink,  and  turns  more  or  less  black  itself.    The  pulp  and  soft- 


WASTE-PAPEB. 


249 


ened  papers  become  thoroughly  impregnated  with  this  black  liquor,  and  can  only  be 
cleaned  by  the  most  persistent  washing. 

It  is  evidently  preferable  that  the  papers  should  not  be  in  motion  while  they  are 
boiled,  so  that  they  will  not  be  turned  into  pulp  before  the  proper  time.  It  will  also 
be  easier  to  wash  papers  which  have  not  been  stained  all  through  with  black  liquor, 
and  the  inevitable  loss  of  fibres,  which  fine  pulp  must  sustain,  is  avoided. 

Waste  paper  is  therefore  boiled  in  stationary  tubs  in  nearly  all  the  mills  which 
make  its  remanufacture  a  specialty.  It  is  true  that  tubs  consume  more  steam  than 
rotaries,  because  they  cannot  be  closed  steam-tight,  but  this  loss  is  more  than  com- 
pensated for  by  the  advantages  gained. 

We  find  them  in  many  mills  constructed  of  wood,  with  wooden  perforated  false 
bottom  and  cover.  The  wood  is  soon  destroyed  by  the  soda ;  it  peels  off  in  flakes 
and  pieces,  and  not  only  requires  frequent  renewals,  but  becomes  mixed  with  the 
pulp,  and  thus  injures  the  paper.  It  is  therefore  cheajier  and  better  to  make  the 
tubs  of  iron. 

Fig.  118  represents  an  arrangement  of  boiling- tubs  in  connection  with  a  hoist- 
ing apparatus,  as  used  in  some  of  our  most  successful  mills. 


Fig.  118. 


The  tubs  a  and  b  are  of  light  boiler  iron,  8  feet  deep,  of  8  feet  diameter  at 
the  bottom,  and  8|  feet  at  the  top,  covered  Avith  a  mantle  of  wood,  which  prevents 
the  escape  of  heat.  The  false  bottoms  c  are  perforated  all  over,  and  carry  in  the 
centre  upright  pipes  d,  overtopped  by  bonnets  e.  The  steam  enters  from  the  pipe 
G  into  a  coil  (not  shown  in  Fig.  118)  below  the  false  bottom,  from  which  it  is  evenly 
spread  through  all  parts  of  the  tub  by  means  of  a  large  number  of  small  holes. 

32 


250  SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 

The  liquid  can  be  drawn  ofif  through  the  pipe  and  valve  h.  A  flat  iron  cover 
F,  in  one  or  two  pieces,  is  laid  over  the  top. 

To  begin  the  operation,  the  tub  is  filled  to  i  or  i  with  a  solution  of  soda ;  steam 
is  started  on,  and  the  whole  mass  brought  to  the  boiling-point  before  any  paper  is  put 
in.  The  boiling  liquid  rises  up  through  the  pipe  d,  and,  striking  against  the  bonnet  e, 
is  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  tub.  As  soon  as  this  takes  place,  the  papers  are 
gradually  thrown  in,  so  that  all  will  be  soaked  before  they  reach  their  resting-place. 

We  have  often  seen  waste-papers  imperfectly  boiled,  because  they  were  packed 
into  the  tub  in  a  dry  state,  and  the  solution  added  afterwards.  When  the  operation 
was  finished,  it  appeared  that  some  portions  of  the  stock  had  not  been  reached  by  the 
liquid ;  that  they  had  not  even  been  wet,  simply  because  they  had  been  packed  together 
so  tightly  that  the  solution  could  not  penetrate  them.  It  is  therefore  of  importance 
that  the  joapers  should  become  thoroughly  soaked  while  they  are  being  put  in ;  and 
if  this  is  done,  as  much  paper  may  be  tramped  into  the  tub  as  it  will  hold. 

The  liquor  circulates  easily  through  a  mass  of  wet  paper,  but  dry  paj)er,  if 
packed  into  a  solid  body,  seems  to  be  nearly  impervious  to  it. 

The  tubs  of  our  section  Fig.  118  (8  by  8  feet)  hold  about  4000  pounds  of  papers 
each,  while  one  of  10  feet  diameter  by  10  feet  depth  would  have  a  capacity  of  nearly 
8000  pounds  of  imperfections.  Heavy  book  papers  require  less  room  than  news  or 
shavings,  and  the  quantity  which  a  tub  may  hold  varies  accordingly. 

The  papers  must  be  packed  all  round  as  uniformly  as  possible,  because  the 
boiling  solution  may  otherwise  find  an  easy  channel  downward  in  some  part,  and 
leave  other  portions  untouched. 

The  liquid  which  boils  up  through  pipe  d,  should  be  spread  over  the  whole  sur- 
face as  uniformly  as  possible,  and  an  iron  bonnet  e,  previously  described,  is  sometimes 
used  for  this  purpose,  but  often  the  cover  f  itself  is  used  in  its  place,  by  making  the 
pipe  D  long  enough  to  come  up  close  to  it. 

A  uniform  percolation  of  the  liquid  through  the  mass  can  be  easier  obtained  in 
tubs  of  moderate  diameter  than  in  very  large  ones. 

The  necessity  of  emptying  the  tubs  by  hand  used  to  be  in  many  mills  one  of 
the  principal  objections  against  their  use,  but  the  boiled  mass  is  at  j) resent  hoisted  out 
by  means  of  cranes. 

An  arrangement  of  this  kind  is  represented  in  Fig.  118.  The  false  bottom  c  is 
made  of  perforated,  wrought  or  cast-iron  plates,  fastened  to  a  strong  frame  of  iron 
bars,  and  can  be  lifted  out  by  means  of  three  or  four  iron  rods  i.  When  the  boiling 
operation  is  finished,  the  hooks  k  are  lowered  and  connected  by  short  chains  with 
the  rings  or  hooks  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  rods  i. 

The  pulley  l  of  the  crane  is  then  connected  by  a  belt  with  the  driving-pulley  m, 
or  the  crank  n  is  turned  by  hand,  until  the  whole  mass  appears  above  the  floor,  when 
the  crane  is  moved  around  on  its  pivot,  to  a  place  where  the  false  bottom  c  can  be 
deposited.  Another  spare  false  bottom  may  at  once  be  attached  to  the  hooks  k, 
lowered  into  the  tub,  and  a  new  operation  started. 


WASTE-PAPEB.  251 

The  papers  come  out  as  a  solid  mass,  looking  like  a  very  large  cheese ;  they  are 
easily  hoisted,  without  rubbing,  in  ascending,  against  the  sides  of  the  tub,  because  of 
its  conical  form  or  constant  enlargement  towards  the  top. 

The  original  weight  of  the  papers  is  increased  by  the  liqnid  absorbed  by  them ; 
they  represent  a  very  heavy  mass,  and  can  only  be  moved  slowly.  The  crane  in 
Fig.  118  is  provided  with  double  gears  and  a  worm-wheel,  driven  by  one  of  the  two 
pulleys  M,  according  to  its  location.  The  tubs  are  located  in  a  circle  aronnd  the 
crane,  but  may  be  disposed  in  any  other  manner,  with  hoisting-apparatus  of  any 
desired  construction. 

The  time  of  an  operation,  from  emptying  to  emptying,  varies  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-four  hours.  If  several  tubs  are  used,  steam  should  be  admitted  to  them  by 
turns,  or  to  only  one  at  a  time,  in  order  to  make  its  consumption  more  regular. 

The  escape  steam  of  a  steam-engine  can  be  used  with  great  advantage  to  boil 
these  jiapers.  It  must  enter  the  tub  under  the  false  bottom,  in  at  least  two  or  three 
places,  to  be  divided  evenly  all  round. 

Some  paper-mills  work  up  enormous  quantities  of  waste  paper,  which  are  boiled 
exclusively  with  escape  steam. 

201.  Preparation  and  Use  of  the  Soda  Solution. — The  soda  is  universally  used  in 
the  form  of  soda  ash,  and  some  paper-makers  simply  sprinkle  it  in  the  dry  state 
through  the  papers.  By  so  doing,  they  introduce  all  the  dirt  and  insoluble  matter, 
contained  in  the  soda  ash,  into  the  pulp.  What  this  amounts  to,  can  easily  be  seen 
by  dissolving  one  lot  in  hot  water,  and  screening  it  through  a  fine  wire-cloth. 

If  as  much  dirt  as  the  soda  solution  leaves  on  the  wire  were  thrown  into  the 
engines,  the  manufacturer  would  probably  consider  the  pulp  ruined ;  but  he  hesitates 
not  to  add  it  in  the  form  of  soda  ash.  If  jjrevious  dissolution  and  screening  are  con- 
sidered too  laborious,  the  soda  can  be  tied  up  in  a  coarse  bag,  and  laid  on  the  bottom 
of  the  tub  before  it  is  filled  with  jjapers.  The  impurities  remain  in  the  bag,  and  can 
be  removed  with  it  when  the  operation  is  finished. 

The  soda  dissolves  the  printing  ink,  but  as  the  papers  are  not  exposed  to  friction 
or  motion,  the  dissolved  ink  remains  on  the  surface  of  the  sheets,  and  is  not  diffused 
all  through  the  liquid. 

A  part  of  the  solution  is  absorbed  by  the  papers,  and  leaves  the  tub  with  them, 
but  the  remainder  is  in  a  comparatively  pure  state,  and  can  be  used  again. 

Many  palmer-makers  do  not  draw  off  the  liquor,  but  only  hoist  the  papers  out, 
add  a  fresh  solution  to  the  liquid,  which  remains  in  the  tub,  and  begin  a  new  opera- 
tion. This  can  be  continued  for  many  weeks  until  the  solution  begins  to  acquire  a 
dark  color,  when  it  must  be  discharged. 

In  some  mills  the  liquor  is  drawn  off  through  the  outlet-pipe  ii,  into  a  lower 
receiver,  as  soon  as  the  boiling  is  finished.  Before  entering  this  receiver,  it  passes, 
however,  through  a  wire-cloth,  which  retains  the  impurities,  and  it  is  subsequently 
returned  to  the  tub  by  means  of  a  pump,  to  serve  with  an  addition  of  fresh  solution 
for  the  next  operation.    The  mass  of  boiled  papers  being  much  lighter  after  the  liquid 


252  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 

has  been  drained  from  it,  can  therefore  be  hoisted  up  with  less  power,  and  the  screen 
retains  pieces  of  paper  and  impurities,  which  will  accumulate  below  the  false  bottom, 
if  the  liquid  is  not  drawn  off  for  a  long  time. 

Some  manufacturers  prefer  the  latter  jolan,  for  the  reasons  mentioned,  to  the 
simpler  first  one. 

The  liquor  which  is  used  for  boiling  by  the  majority  of  manufacturers,  consists 
simply  of  a  solution  of  soda  ash,  the  purest  and  most  caustic  soda  ash  being  generally 
preferred  for  this  purpose.  In  some  paper-mills  its  causticity  is  increased  by  boiling 
with  caustic  lime,  and  a  few  paper-makers  make  the  solution  thoroughly  caustic. 

The  principal  object  of  the  boiling  operation  is  to  transform  the  fat  of  the  print- 
ing ink  into  a  soluble  soap.  Thei  soap-maker  does  precisely  the  same  thing,  but  he 
uses  caustic  soda  (NaO)  only.  So-called  caustic  soda  ash  contains  seldom  more  than 
from  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  its  soda  in  the  caustic  state,  while  the  balance  is  carbonate 
of  soda  (NaO,C02). 

The  elimination  of  the  carbonic  acid  can  only  be  beneficial,  and  we  would  there- 
fore suggest  that  the  soda  solution  should  always  be  made  caustic.  It  should  be  boiled 
with  its  due  i^roportion  of  caustic  or  burnt  lime,  and  the  clear  liquid  drawn  off  into 
the  tub. 

For  particulars  we  refer  to  Section  IV,  on  Straw-Paper. 

The  manufacturers  who  are  most  successful  in  this  specialty  use  quantities  of 
fresh  soda  ash,  varying  from  10  to  20  pounds  per  hundred  of  the  weight  of  papers 
in  addition  to  the  solution  which  has  been  left  from  the  preceding  operation. 

Waste-paper  requires  more  soda,  in  proportion  as  it  is  more  thickly  covered 
with  printing  ink. 

202.  Washing  and  Bleaching. — The  boiled  paj)ers  are  gradually  removed  from  the 
false  bottom  on  which  they  rest  in  the  form  of  a  large  cake,  and  furnished  to  the  wash- 
ing-engine. 

These  engines  should  be  provided  with  blunt  knives  and  clear  wash-water,  and 
their  revolving  washers  must  be  kept  at  work  until  the  water  runs  off  clear,  when  the 
papers  may  be  brushed  out  by  lowering  the  roll. 

Although  the  sorting  may  have  been  done  with  the  greatest  care,  rags  and 
threads  always  make  their  appearance  in  the  boiled  stock.  Some  papers  are  joasted 
upon  a  body  of  cloth,  which  cannot  be  seen  until  it  has  been  separated  by  the  hot 
water  of  the  boiling  operation  and  the  movement  in  the  engine ;  others,  esjoecially 
threads,  have  been  overlooked  from  their  smallness.  When  the  pajDers  are  reduced 
in  the  engine,  it  is  frequently  found  that  all  these  strings  and  rags  together  form 
considerable  quantities,  which  must  give  trouble  during  their  further  j^rogress  through 
the  chest,  pump,  screens,  and  on  the  wire.  It  is  a  matter  of  importance  that  they 
should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  beyond  the  engine,  and  they  can  be  effectually  caught 
by  a  very  simple  arrangement. 

By  putting  the  fingers  upright,  like  a  rake,  into  the  moving  pulp,  it  is  easy  to 
catch  the  rags  and  strings  which  pass  that  way ;  they  will  gather  around  and  hang 


WASTE-PAPER. 


253 


on  to  them.  This  simple  experiment  shows  what  ought  to  be  done.  Instead  of  using 
the  fingers  of  the  hand,  a  rack  shoidd  be  constructed,  similar  to  those  used  for  water- 
wheels,  and  placed  across  the  engine-tub,  between  the  midfellow  and  front  side,  where 
the  pulp  begins  to  ascend  to  the  roll,  as  represented  in  Fig.  18.  A  frame  of  hard 
wood  H  which  is  hanging  in  boxes  on  the  midfellow  and  front  side,  rests  with  its  lower 
part  on  the  bottom  of  the  engine.  The  upright  teeth  which  form  the  rack  are  fastened 
into  this  frame;  they  must  be  strong  enough  (about  2  inches  deep)  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  pulp.  They  should,  at  the  same  time,  occupy  as  little  as  possible  of  the  space 
through  which  the  pulp  has  to  pass,  and  may  be  about  i  inch  thick  at  the  back  end, 
and  not  less  than  from  2  to  3  inches  apart.  The  edges  of  the  teeth  which  are  struck 
by  the  flowing  pulp  should  be  sharj)  or  pointed,  to  make  the  strings  hang  on  easier. 
Wooden  teeth  answer  better  than  metal  ones,  because  the  latter  become  slippery  and 
let  the  strings  glide  off.  As  long  as  the  rack  is  not  needed,  the  lower  end  is  lifted 
above  the  engine  and  held  there  by  means  of  a  stick  or  paddle,  placed  under  it,  across 
the  midfellow  and  front  side  of  the  vat.  As  soon  as  the  papers  are  sufficiently 
reduced  to  pass  the  rack  without  obstructing  it,  it  is  set  in  working  position,  and  the 
strings  immediately  begin  to  gather  and  hang  on  to  its  teeth ;  it  must  be  frequently 
raised  to  remove  the  rags  until  no  more  can  be  fished  out. 

We  have  seen  bucketfuls  of  rags  and  strings  thus  taken  from  an  engine  furnished 
with  imperfections  or  shavings,  which  were  apparently  free  from  them. 

The  washed  and  cleaned  pulp  is  then  bleached  in  the  engine,  in  precisely  the 
same  manner  as  rags.  If  only  one  class  of  papers  is  used  and  made  into  a  low- 
priced  article,  the  whole  operation  can  be  finished  in  the  one  engine ;  but  if  the  pulps 
of  different  grades  of  imperfections  are  to  be  mixed,  and  the  best  possible  quality  pro- 
duced, the  bleached  pulp  should  be  emptied  into  drainers. 

Fine  blue  letter-paper,  if  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  can  be  obtained,  should 
only  be  washed,  but  not  bleached,  as  its  pulp  furnishes  a  very  good  coloring  material, 
which  may  be  used  in  the  place  of  ultramarine. 

203.  Mixing,  Beating,  and  Final  Remarks. — The  pulp  from  waste  papers  is,  like 
that  from  rags,  mixed  in  the  beaters,  washed,  and  made  into  stuff"  for  the  machine. 
It  requires  for  this  purpose  no  severe  beating,  but  only  a  thorough  brushing,  which 
will  not  permit  any  small  pieces  of  paper  to  slij)  through  without  being  reduced  to 
fibres. 

If  strings  and  rags  were  allowed  to  remain  among  the  jmpers,  instead  of  having 
been  fished  out,  it  would  be  necessary  to  grind  them  into  pulp ;  and  this  could  not 
be  done  without  beating  the  papers  more  severely  than  they  require,  thus  injuring 
the  fibres  and  the  strength  of  the  new  paper. 

If  waste-paper  is  to  be  mixed  with  rags,  the  latter  must  be  thoroughly  reduced 
before  the  paper-pulp  is  added. 

Every  particle  of  paper  which  has  not  been  thoroughly  reduced  to  fibres,  either 
from  imperfect  boiling  or  beating,  will  cause  a  dark,  thick  spot  in  the  new  paper 
which  is  made  from  it. 


254 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


If  the  operations  have  been  very  badly  conducted,  the  new  paper  will  sometimes 
present  a  mottled  aj)pearance,  or  even  be  covered  with  letters  or  words,  which  had 
neither  been  dissolved  nor  brushed  out. 

Every  engine  of  pulp,  made  from  waste  paper,  should  therefore  be  well  examined 
before  it  is  allowed  to  be  discharged. 

Different  kinds  of  pulp  can  also  be  separately  finished  in  the  engine  and  mixed 
in  the  stuff-chest  with  straw  or  rag-pulp,  especially  if  they  are  to  pass  through  a 
patent  pulping-engine  afterwards.  It  has  been  found  difficult  in  many  mills  to  brush 
out  waste-paper  with  ordinary  beaters,  and  Jordan  engines  (Figs.  48  and  49)  have 
therefore  been  generally  adopted  for  this  purpose.  Nearly  every  mill  known  .to  us 
which  works  waste-paper  as  a  specialty  is  supplied  with  one  or  more  of  them. 

The  writer,  as  manager  of  the  Public  Ledger  Paper  Mill,  has,  during  four  years, 
worked  millions  of  pounds  of  old  newspapers,  prints,  imperfections,  &c.,  mixed  with 
about  an  equal  quantity  of  straw-pulp,  into  new  printing-paper.  The  two  kinds  of 
l^ulp  were  either  mixed  in  the  beaters,  or  treated  separately  and  mixed  in  the  stuff- 
chest  only. 

The  fibres  composing  waste-paper  are  weakened  by  the  repeated  treatment,  and, 
like  shoddy,  will  not  produce  so  strong  an  article  as  they  originally  formed ;  but 
their  color  and  cleanness  may  not  only  be  restored,  but  even  improved. 

A  large  number  of  mills  are  making  paper  from  waste  exclusively,  and  the  most 
successful  ones  do  not  confine  themselves  to  news,  hanging,  and  card,  but  even  man- 
ufacture a  very  fair  medium  quality  of  book  paper. 

Waste-paper  is  a  good  substitute  for  rags,  over  which  it  has  the  advantage  that 
it  is  already  reduced  and  absorbs  very  little  power. 

According  to  quality  and  purity,  it  furnishes  from  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  in  new  paper. 

It  is  especially  of  advantage  to  paper-mills  which  have  no  water-power  or  not 
enough  of  it.  If  the  steam  which  escapes  from  the  engine  is  used  for  boiling  the 
papers,  and  otherwise  economized,  a  steam-mill  will,  in  working  waste-paper,  consume 
comparatively  little  more  fuel  than  one  driven  by  water-power. 


STB  AW. 


255 


SECTION  IV. 
Straw. 

We  subdivide  this  section  into  : 

A.  Wrapping-paper. — Manufacture  of  white  straw-paper  according  to  Mellier's 
directions,  and  hj  similar  processes. 

B.  New  patented  processes. 

C.  Treatment  of  straw-pulp  in  the  beaters  and  on  the  paper-machine. — Con- 
clusions. 

A.  Wrapping- Paper. — 3Ianufacture  of  White  Straw-Paper  according  to  Ilellier's 

Directions,  and  by  Similar  Processes. 

204.  Yellow  Straw  Wrapping-Paper. — The  attention  of  paper-makers  was 
attracted  to  straw  as  a  substitute  for  rags  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last 
century.  Joel  Munsell  states  in  his  Chronology  that  the  first  attempt  to  manufac- 
ture paper  from  straw  was  made  in  Germany  in  1756,  induced  by  the  scarcity  of 
rags.  A  treatise  was  printed  upon  the  subject,  giving  a  plan  for  reducing  all  vege- 
tables into  pulj),  and  bleaching  the  same. 

Yellow  straw-paper  was  the  first  result  of  these  experiments,  and  it  was  prob- 
ably made  many  years  ago  in  substantially  the  same  manner  as  at  the  present  time. 

The  straw  is  steeped  in  its  original  length  in  wooden  tubs,  of  the  same  construc- 
tion as  those  described  for  rags  and  waste-paper,  but  of  larger  size.  Fresh  lime  is 
dissolved  in  a  box  or  tub  above  them,  and  the  diluted  milk  of  lime  thus  prepared, 
runs  down  to  the  straw. 

Steam  is  then  admitted,  and  the  whole  mass  boiled  for  several  hours,  the  liquid 
drained  and  washed  off,  and  the  straw  thrown  out.  It  is  thence  directly  furnished 
into  engines  provided  with  washers,  cleaned  as  much  as  possible,  beaten  into  pulp, 
emptied  into  a  stuff-chest,  and  made  into  paper  on  a  cylinder-machine. 

A  Fourdrinier  machine  would  also  answer,  but  the  low  price  of  the  paper  does 
not  justify  the  use  of  so  expensive  an  apparatus  when  the  much  cheaper  cylinder- 
machine  answers  the  purpose. 

In  the  manufacture  of  straw  wrapping  or  boards,  it  is  of  little  importance  how 
much  cellulose  the  straw  contains,  provided  it  be  strong  and  pliable,  as  nearly  all  of 
it,  except  a  small  proportion  extracted  by  the  lime-water,  enters  into  the  body  of  the 
paper. 


256 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAGS. 


205.  Proportions  of  Fibres  and  Other  Substances  contained  in  Different  Kinds  of 
Straw,  Esparto,  and  some  other  Plants. — If  good  white  paper  is  to  be  made  from  straw, 
the  cellulose  or  fibre  must  be  produced  in  a  pure  state ;  and  upon  the  proportion  of 
cellulose  which  may  be  contained  in  the  raw  material  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
commercial  success  of  the  o^Jerations. 

The  composition  of  many  plants  has  been  examined,  with  a  view  to  their  useful- 
ness for  the  manufacture  of  pajDer,  and  the  results  of  a  number  of  these  analytical 
tests  have  been  communicated  in  the  Centralblatt  fur  Deutsche  Fa-pier fabrication  of 
1871,  by  Superintendent  C.  Schmidt,  as  follows : 


Foliage  of  Oak 
Trees. 

Poplar  Foliage. 

Bean  Straw. 

Pea  Straw. 

Barley  Straw. 

"S 
o 

Lens  Straw. 

Corn  Husks, 
Maize  Straw. 

Rape  Seed 
Straw. 

Eye  Straw. 

Wheat  Straw. 

Parts  -which  can  be  extracted  by 

28.00 

10.67 

46.60 

11  33 

20.67 

27.47 

17.00 

14.80 

2.80 

7.60 

Parts  which  can  be  extracted 

by  a  weak  lye  of  potash,   .  . 

57.00 

48.36 

37.42 

23.24 

38.24 

31.62 

34.16 

57.03 

29.80 

49.08 

40.43 

Wax,  resin,  chlorophyll, 

3.00 

2.88 

0.91 

1.54 

0.78 

0.77 

1.27 

1.74 

0.50 

0.52 

0.47 

Fibre  

1 5  00 

20.76 

51.00 

28.62 

49.65 

46.94 

87.10 

24.23 

54.90 

47.60 

51.50 

Esparto  contains : 


Water,   9.62 

Oil,                                                 .       .  1.23 

Albuminous  matters,       .....  5.46 

Starch,  gum,  sugar,  ......  22.37 

Mineral  substances,  ......  5.04 

Fibre,   56.28 


It  is  evident  from  the  small  proportion  of  fibre  contained  in  leaves,  and  foliage, 
that  they  cannot  be  profitable  raw  materials  for  the  paper-maker. 

Corn-husks  or  maize-straw  being  very  abundant  in  Hungary,  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment was,  years  ago,  very  anxious  to  utilize  them  for  paper,  and  millions  were 
spent  in  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  but  without  success.  A  glance  at  our  table, 
showing  only  24  per  cent,  fibre,  explains  why. 

The  straw  of  beans,  peas,  barley,  oats,  rape-seed,  rye,  and  wheat  contains  enough 
fibre ;  but  only  that  of  oats,  wheat,  and  rye,  and  in  some  localities  of  barley,  can  be 
procured  in  sufficient  quantities  for  manufacturing.  As  these  different  varieties  are 
treated  in  substantially  the  same  manner,  we  shall  proceed  to  the  methods  of  extract- 
ing the  fibres  from  straw,  without  s^iecial  reference  to  any  particular  kind. 

206.  Mellier's  Patent. — The  process  of  slow  oxidation,  by  which  nature  dissolves 


STB  AW. 


257 


decaying  plants,  has  in  a  measure  been  imitated  by  often-repeated  maceration  of  the 
straw,  alternating  with  baths  in  alkaline  lye,  until  the  fibre  was  obtained  pure,  or 
nearly  so. 

Even  at  the  present  day  white  paper  is  made  from  straw,  boiled  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  in  open  tubs. 

To  make  its  manufacture  a  profitable  business,  it  must  be  done  expeditiously, 
with  as  little  labor,  chemicals,  and  fuel  as  possible,  and  with  as  large  a  production  of 
pure  fibre  as  can  be  obtained. 

Numerous  experiments  have  been  and  are  necessary  to  determine  what  propor- 
tions and  kinds  of  chemicals,  what  degree  of  temperature,  how  much  time,  and  what 
mechanical  apparatus  are  best  suited  to  that  end. 

Though  white  paper  had  been  made  from  straw  as  early  as  in  the  year  1800  by 
Matthias  Koops,  and  later  by  Montgolfier,  and  Lemuel  W.  Wright  (patented  1847), 
the  manufacture  had  not  been  carried  on  largely  until  Mellier  established,  as  the 
result  of  many  experiments  made  by  him,  a  simple,  concise  prescription,  by  which, 
when  followed  out  correctly,  good  white  paper  could  be  made.  The  specifications  of 
the  patent,  granted  to  him,  contain  a  full  description  of  his  process,  and,  since  it  has 
given  rise  to  considerable  litigation,  we  add  here  a  copy  of  it : 


M.  A.  C.  MELLIER,  OF  PARIS,  FRANCE. 
Letters-Patent  No.  1  7,387,  dated  May  26th,  1857. 

Patented  in  France,  August  7th,  1854. 
Patented  in  England,  October  26th,  1855. 

To  ALL  WHOM  IT  MAY  CONCERN  : 

Be  it  known  that  I,  Marie  Ainedee  Charles  Mellier,  of  Paris,  in  the  Empire  of  France,  have  made 
an  invention  for  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  I  do  hereby  declare  that  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  full  and  exact  description  : 

The  invention  has  for  its  object  a  peculiar  process  for  the  treating  of  straw  and  other  vegetable 
fibrous  materials  requiring  like  treatment,  preparatory  to  the  use  of  such  fibres  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper ;  and  the  improvement  consists  in  subjecting  straw  or  such  other  fibrous  materials  to  a  pressure 
of  at  least  70  pounds  on  the  square  inch  when  boiling  such  fibrous  matters  in  a  solution  of  caustic 
alkali.  For  this  purpose  the  straw  or  fibrous  matters  are  cut  into  short  lengths,  soaked  in  warm  water, 
and  washed.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  suitable  boiler — and  I  use  for  such  purpose  a  rotary  boiler 
provided  with  a  coil  or  coils  of  steam-pipe — for  the  purpose  of  heating  the  contents ;  and  I  prgfer  that 
the  boiling  should  be  carried  on  at  a  temperature  to  produce  at  or  about  80  pounds  on  the  square  inch 
in  the  boiler,  where  are  the  fibrous  materials  to  be  acted  upon,  but  so  high  a  temperature  is  not  abso- 
lutely necessary ;  for  I  have  found  by  experiment  that  it  is  essential  that  a  temperature  equivalent  to 
70  pounds  on  the  square  inch  must  be  employed.  The  quantity  of  alkali  used  is  at  the  rate  of  about 
16  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda  or  potash  of  the  straw  or  fibrous  substance  under  process.  The  fibres 
may  then  be  bleached  by  the  use  of  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  bleaching  powder  or  chloride 
of  lime. 

To  enable  others  skilled  in  the  art  to  make  and  use  my  invention,  I  will  proceed  to  describe  more 

.33 


258 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


fully  the  manner  of  using  the  same :  The  straw,  or  other  fibrous  material  requiring  a  like  process 
to  prepare  the  same  for  the  paper  manufacture,  is  first,  as  heretofore,  to  be  cut,  in  a  chaff-cutting  or 
•  other  machine,  into  short  lengths,  and  to  be  freed  from  knots,  dirt,  and  dust,  and  then  steeped  for  a 
few  hours  in  hot  water.  The  straw  or  fibrous  materials  and  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  alkali  are  then 
to  be  placed  in  a  suitable  close  boiler,  heated  by  steam  as  hereafter  explained,  and  the  heat  is  to  be 
raised  to  such  a  degree  as  to  attain  and  maintain  for  a  time  a  pressure  internally  of  the  boiler  equal  to 
or  exceeding  70  pounds  on  the  square  inch — that  is,  about  310  degrees  of  Fahrenheit — by  which  means 
a  considerable  saving  of  alkali,  as  well  as  time  and  fuel,  results,  as  compared  with  the  means  of  using 
a  hot  solution  of  caustic  alkali,  as  now  practiced  in  preparing  straw  and  other  fibres  for  paper-making. 

The  boiler  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  the  manner  of  heating  it  by  steam,  may  be  varied  ;  but, 
first,  it  must  have  a  rotary  motion,  either  on  its  long  or  on  its  small  axis,  by  means  which  are  very 
well  known;  and  second,  I  prefer  not  to  send  the  steam  directly  into  the  liquid  in  which  the  materials 
are  immersed,  but  to  pass  it  either  in  a  jacket  around  the  boiler,  or  through  a  coil  or  a  system  of 
steam-pipes  inside  of  it,  so  that  the  steam  does  not  mix  with  the  caustic  alkaline  solution  in  the 
middle  portion  of  the  boiler,  but  is  kept  separate,  and  does  not  therefore,  in  condensing,  dilute  the 
caustic  alkaline  solution  used. 

The  plan  of  construction  of  the  boiler  I  would  recommend  would  be,  if  the  boiler  is  to  rotate  ver- 
tically or  on  its  small  axis,  as  very  well  known,  to  cover  it  with  a  jacket,  so  that  the  steam  could 
circulate  from  one  end  to  the  other  between  the  two  plates ;  or  rather,  if  it  is  to  revolve  horizontally, 
or  upon  its  long  axis,  as  is  equally  very  well  known,  to  fix  near  each  end  of  the  boiler  and  inside  of 
it  a  diaphragm  or  partition,  which  partitions  are  connected  together  by  numerous  tubes,  which  are 
arranged  in  a  circle,  near  the  outer  circuniference  of  each  partition.  By  this  arrangement  the  steam 
is  introduced  through  the  hollow  axis  at  one  end  of  the  boiler,  and  it  passes  through  the  steam-pipes,  , 
and  thence  into  the  compartment  at  the  other  end  of  the  boiler,  where  it  and  the  condensed  steam  are 
conveyed  away,  as  is  well  understood,  through  the  other  hollow  axis. 

In  adojiting  the  plan  of  not  sending  directly  the  steam  into  the  boiler,  I  found  the  three  following 
advantages :  first,  not  to  dilute,  as  I  have  already  said,  the  alkaline  solutions :  second,  to  avoid  the 
trouble  of  having  sometimes  the  end  of  the  steam-pipe  in  the  boiler  choked  with  straw,  and  to  prevent, 
in  case  that  by  one  cause  or  another  the  pressure  iti  the  steam-boiler  would  fall  under  the  degree  of  the 
pressure  in  the  straw-boiler,  the  priming  of  the  first  by  the  second,  viz.,  the  absorption  of  straw  and 
alkaline  solution  from  the  straw-boiler  into  the  steam-boiler ;  third,  the  greater  facility  of  cooling  the 
straw-boiler,  when  the  pressure  has  been  maintained  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  by  means  of  turning 
off  the  steam  at  one  end,  letting  it  at  the  other  end  out  of  the  jacket,  or  of  the  coils  or  steam-pipes  just 
described,  and  passing  through  the  same  a  stream  of  cold  water,  which,  at  the  same  time  that  it  cools 
the  mass,  furnishes  a  quantity  of  cold  water,  which  can  be  received  in  convenient  vessels,  and  will  be 
found  very  useful  for  washing  the  straw  or  other  fibrous  material  after  boiling. 

By  means  of  submitting  the  straw  or  similar  fibrous  materials  to  a  pressure  of  between  70  to  84 
pounds  on  the  square  inch  inside  of  the  boiler,  I  can  reduce  considerably  the  proportion  of  alkali;  and 
the  solution  which  I  prefer  to  use  is  to  be  from  2  to  3  degrees  of  Baume,  or  of  a  specific  gravity  of 
from  1.013  to  1.020,  and  at  the  rate  of  about  70  gallons  of  such  solution  to  each  hundredweight  of 
straw  or  other  fibrous  vegetable  matters  requiring  like  treatment. 

The  boiler  is  to  be  filled  with  straw  and  the  alkaline  solution,  and  then  closed,  fluid  and  steam- 
tight,  ^he  boiler  is  made  to  revolve  slowly— say  about  1  or  2  revolutions  per  minute — and  the  steam 
is  to  be  admitted.  I  find  it  desirable  to  keep  up  the  heat  and  pressure  during  about  three  hours  after 
the  pressure  above  mentioned  has  been  obtained,  when  the  process  of  boiling  is  complete.  A  steam- 
gauge,  properly  fixed  upon  the  boiler,  will  enable  one  to  ascertain  when  the  pressure  has  attained  the 
required  degree. 

When  the  apparatus  and  the  fibres  under  process  have  been  cooled  by  the  means  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  or  rather,  Avhen  the  pressure  has  been  reduced  to  nothing,  I  open  the  manhole  of  the  boiler, 
empty  the  materials  in  suitable  vessels,  and  wash  them  first  with  hot  water,  then  with  cold  water,  until 


STEA  W. 


259 


the  liquor  ruDS  perfectly  clear.  I  then  steep  the  fibre  for  about  an  hour  ia  hot  water  acidulated  with 
a  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  equal  to  about  2  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  fibres  under  process,  and 
finally,  the  washing  is  completed  with  cold  water.  The  straw  or  fibre  may  then  be  bleached  in  the 
ordinary  manner,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be  accomplished  by  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of 
chloride  of  lime. 

Having  thus  described  the  nature  of  my  said  invention  and  the  manner  of  performing  the  same,  I 
would  have  it  understood  that  I  do  not  claim  the  general  use  of  caustic  alkaline  solutions,  nor  the 
employment  generally  of  a  close  boiler  for  boiling  straw  or  other  vegetable  fibrous  substances. 

But  what  I  claim  as  my  invention  and  desire  to  secure  by  letters-patent  is,  the  use  of  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda  (NaO)  in  a  compartment  of  a  rotary  vessel,  separate  from  that  which  contains  the  steam- 
heat,  substantially  as  described. 

I  also  claim  the  within-described  process  for  bleaching  straw,  consisting  in  boiling  it  in  a  solution 
of  pure  caustic  soda  (NaO)  from  2  to  3  degrees  Baume,  at  a  temperature  not  less  than  310  degrees 
Fahrenheit  after  it  has  been  soaked  and  cleaned,  and  before  submitting  it  to  the  action  of  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  lime  from  1  to      degrees,  substantially  as  described. 

Am.  Mellier. 

The  American  Wood-Paper  Company  are  the  owners  of  this  and  many  other 
patents,  and  claim,  as  the  general  manager,  Mr.  Ladd,  stated  to  the  author,  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  use  caustic  soda,  with  or  without  pressure,  for  the  preparation  of  straw 
and  wood  pulp.  The  company  have  tried  to  enforce  their  claims  through  the  courts, 
but  have  naturally  enough  encountered  strong  opposition.  Mellier's  original  patent 
expired  in  1868,  and  the  defendants  argue  that  the  extension,  dated  July,  1868,  has 
been  illegally  obtained  and  is  therefore  void.  The  case  is  now  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  a  just  decision  will 
be  rendered  in  time.  The  claims,  if  admitted,  will  give  to  the  American  Wood- Paper 
Company  the  monopoly  of  a  large  part  of  the  paper  trade,  and  many  new  enterprises 
are  probably  awaiting  the  result.* 

We  shall  now  discuss  the  operations  of  a  mill  making  white  paper  from  straw 
on  Mellier's  plan,  or  in  a  similar  manner. 

207.  Purchase  and  Storage  of  Straw. — The  purchase  of  straw,  simple  as  it  seems, 
requires  some  judgment  and  a  knowledge  of  the  country  from  which  the  mill  draws 
its  supply.  Wherever  land  is  of  little  value,  or  held  in  large  tracts  by  only  a  few 
proprietors,  the  harvest  of  grain  is  mostly  so  abundant  that  houses  or  covers,  large 
enough  to  shelter  it,  are  seldom  met  with.  The  thrashing  is  done  in  the  open  fields, 
as  fast  as  possible,  and  the  straw,  being  considered  of  little  value,  is  piled  up  care- 
lessly. Such  straw  contains  usually  more  impurities,  chaff,  grain,  and  weeds,  than 
that  produced  on  small  farms,  the  owners  of  which  give  their  personal  attention  to 
every  department,  trying  to  make  up  by  the  quality  of  their  produce  for  the  defi- 
ciency in  quantity.  Where  the  land  is  valuable  and  divided  into  small  estates,  nearly 
every  farm  has  a  large  barn  or  shed,  wherein  the  grain  harvest  is  stored  and  thrashed 
during  the  winter.  Even  the  soil  is  better  taken  care  of;  the  straw  is  free  from 
weeds,  clean  and  bright,  and  fully  worth  the  higher  price  which  it  commands. 

If  straw  remains  exposed  to  the  weather  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  it 


260 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


undergoes  a  change,  which  is  indicated  by  the  color;  it  gets  continually  darker,  until 
it  has  finally  turned  jDerfectly  black. 

It  may  be  only  partly  rotten,  and  yet  retain  many  sound  fibres,  but  the  colored 
substance,  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  seems  to  withstand  the  action  of  the  chemi- 
cals which  are  used  to  subdue  the  straw,  and  2)revents  the  production  of  a  white 
pulp.  Ex]3eriments  have  j^roved  that  this  coloring  substance  is  soluble  in  water,  but 
few  or  no  mills  are  su2)plied  with  the  machinery  which  would  be  required  to  wash 
rotten  straw  thoroughly  before  it  is  boiled  or  subdued,  and  unless  this  is  done,  it 
is  not  only  worthless  itself,  but  injures  the  quality  of  the  paper  made  of  the  good 
straw,  with  which  it  may  be  mixed. 

It  is  necessary  that  straw  should  be  under  cover  to  remain  bright,  and  if  large 
quantities  have  to  be  kept  on  hand,  it  will  pay  to  build  sheds,  or  roofs  supported  on 
posts  for  the  purpose. 

The  loaded  teams,  being  driven  under  it,  can  be  emptied  with  forks,  suspended 
on  pulleys  fastened  to  the  roof,  which  may  be  worked  by  the  team-horses.  The 
double  harpoon  fork  has  been  used  by  the  author  for  this  purpose. 

Sheds  or  ricks  of  this  kind  should  be  about  100  yards  distant  from  the  mill,  as 
the  fire  insurance  companies  hold  that  the  jjroximity  of  large  quantities  of  straw 
increases  their  risk  and  consequently  their  charges. 

The  husks  of  grain,  the  chaff,  and  the  leaves  or  blades,  which  are  attached  to 
several  kinds  of  straw,  contain  very  little  fibre ;  they  are  not  only  of  little  value,  but 
also  occupy  the  place  of  better  material,  and  absorb  labor,  chemicals,  and  fuel,  with- 
out giving  any  adequate  return. 

It  is  the  farmer's  aim  to  separate  all  the  grain  from  the  straw,  but,  even  with  the 
best  thrashing-machines,  this  cannot  be  done  thoroughly  if  the  straw  has  been  cut 
green,  or  if  it  is  thrashed  in  a  hurried  manner,  as  it  is,  for  instance,  in  most  cases 
where  the  operation  is  carried  on  in  the  fields.  Any  corns  or  grains,  which  have 
entered  the  boilers  with  the  straw,  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  heat  and  water,  and 
the  starch,  of  which  they  principally  consist,  is  thereby  transformed  into  dextrin  or 
gum,  and  perhaps  partly  into  sugar.  We  find  frequently  in  white  straw-paper  small 
transparent  spots,  similar  to  those  made  by  oil ;  they  will  in  most  cases  be  found  to 
be  dextrin  2?roduced  from  grain,  or  from  parts  of  grain  attached  to  chaff. 

After  the  grain  or  chaff  has  once  been  admitted  to  the  boiler,  it  will  become 
decomposed,  and  cannot  afterwards  be  caught  in  the  screens  with  other  impurities. 
We  have  visited  a  mill  where  all  the  straw,  after  being  cut,  was  passed  through  a 
cleaner,  and,  although  it  had  been  originally  in  very  good  condition,  yielded  enough 
grain  to  provide  food  for  six  horses. 

The  straw  is  often  wet  and  heavy,  and  if  the  purchaser  does  not  make  a  deduc- 
tion for  the  increase  of  weight,  the  farmers  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  expose 
it  to  rain.    We  have  known  some  of  these  gentlemen  to  assist  nature  by  pouring 
pails  of  water  over  the  straw. 
,    The  stem  or  tube  of  the  straw  is  the  part  of  the  plant  which  is  richest  in  fibres, 


STEAW. 


261 


while  .the  blades,  leaves,  and  chaff  contain  very  little,  and  decrease  the  general  yield 
by  their  presence.  Our  table  shows  that  wheat-straw  is  richer  in  fibres  than  that  of 
rye  or  oats. 

Clean,  bright  wheat-straw  gives,  according  to  the  author's  experience,  as  much 
paper  as  that  of  rye,  but  the  latter  is  generally  furnished  to  the  mills  cleaner  and 
with  fewer  weeds  and  blades  than  either  wheat  or  oat-straw,  and  for  that  reason  gives 
better  results ;  hence,  many  manufacturers  conclude  that  it  contains  more  fibres. 

We  consider  the  quality  and  purity  of  the  straw  as  of  more  importance  than 
the  species ;  clean,  bright,  white  straw  is  preferable  to  a  poor  article  of  rye-straw,  and 
vice  versa. 

Oat-straw  has  more  worthless  blades  attached  to  it  than  either  wheat  or  rye, 
and  is  therefore,  everything  else  being  equal,  less  valuable. 

The  quality  of  the  straw  varies  with  the  soil  and  the  climate,  and,  even  for  the 
same  soil,  in  different  years. 

Large  cities  are  heavy  consumers  of  straw,  and  draw  their  supplies  from  consid- 
erable distances ;  it  is  pressed  in  bales  like  hay  for  this  purpose,  but  from  its  great 
elasticity  cannot  be  much  reduced  in  bulk,  which  makes  its  transportation  very  ex- 
pensive. 

Mills  at  some  distance  from  large  cities,  in  the  midst  of  a  grain-growing  country, 
cannot  merely  buy  cheaper,  but  can  also  save  the  cost  of  baling  all  the  straw  which 
may  be  furnished  by  the  immediate  neighborhood. 

It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  a  mill  has  all  the  conditions  of  pros- 
perity, if  located  in  a  country  where  straw  is  abundant  and  seemingly  of  no  value. 

As  soon  as  the  mill  creates  a  demand,  the  price  goes  up,  and  as  it  takes  a  large 
belt  of  country  to  supply  an  ordinary  mill,  the  trans]:iortation  of  at  least  a  part  of 
the  straw  will  often  double  and  triple  its  cost.  While  straw  may  be  cheap  in  a  certain 
locality,  the  transportation  of  coal,  chemicals,  paper,  &c.,  may  be  so  expensive  as  to 
outweigh  this  advantage.    (See  Chapter  VI,  Section  XII,  Location  of  Mills.) 

208.  Cutting-. — The  first  operation  to  which  straw  is  suljtjected  in  most  mills  is 
that  of  cutting  it  into  short  lengths.  The  cutters  used  are  similar  to  rag-cutters;  they 
have  a  table  on  which  the  straw  is  spread  and  fed  to  fluted  feed-rolls,  which  push  it 
forward  over  a  horizontal  bed-knife  with  steel  edge. 

Revolving  knives  fastened  to  a  solid  horizontal  cylinder,  like  those  used  for  rag- 
cutters,  form  scissors  with  it.  The  relative  speed  of  the  feed-rolls  and  of  the  knives 
determines  the  length  of  the  pieces  cut. 

It  will  pay  in  most  cases  to  put  the  straw  through  a  cleaner,  but  if  this  is  not 
done,  it  is  well  to  let  the  cut  straw  drop  from  the  knives  on  to  a  rack  or  wire  with 
openings,  through  which  the  cliaflf  and  grain  can  pass  while  the  straw  is  kept  on  top. 
The  efficiency  of  this  separator  can  be  increased  by  giving  it  a  slight  shaking  motion  ; 
it  is  placed  inside  of  the  cutter,  requires  no  room  and  very  little  expense. 

The  cut  straw  must  next  be  boiled  with  caustic  soda.  The  preparatory  opera- 
tions, such  as  boiling  in  hot  water  or  waste  liquor,  will  be  spoken  of  hereafter. 


262  SUBSTITUTES  FOE  BAGS. 

209.  Soda. — The  preparation  of  the  solution  of  caustic  soda,  which  is  used  ipr  the 
digestion  of  straw,  Avood,  esparto,  and  of  nearly  all  the  plants  which  serve  as  sub- 
stitutes for  rags,  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  cannot  be  too  well  understood. 

Carbonate  of  soda  (NaO,C02)  is  a  combination  of  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO)  with 
one  of  carbonic  acid  (CO2)  atom  for  atom. 

During  the  last  century  it  was  extracted  from  the  water  of  some  lakes,  and  from 
the  ashes  of  j)lants  growing  on  the  sea-shore.  The  trade  in  this  article  was  nearly 
altogether  in  English  hands,  and  when  the  first  Napoleon  closed  the  continent  of 
Europe,  as  far  as  his  power  extended,  to  the  English  trade,  he  offered,  at  the  same 
time,  a  prize  for  the  discovery  of  a  method,  by  which  soda  could  be  manufactured 
cheaply  and  in  large  quantities  from  other  materials. 

Leblanc's  process  was  the  result,  and  is  used  at  the  present  day  substantially  on 
the  principles  laid  down  by  the  inventor. 

Common  rock  salt,  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl),  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid 
(SOsjHO),  and  transformed  into  sulphate  of  soda  (NaO,S03)  ;  the  hydrochloric  acid 
(HCl)  Avhich  escapes  is  gathered  and  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  bleaching- 
powders. 

NaCl  +  SOj.HO  =  NaO,S03  +  HCl 

Chloride  of      Sulphuric        Sulphate  of  Hydrochloric 
sodium.  acid.  soda.  acid. 

The  sulphate  of  soda  thus  obtained  is  well  mixed  with  coal  or  carbon  (C)  and 
with  carbonate  of  lime  (CaO,C02)  or  chalk,  and  heated  in  a  furnace. 

The  mixture  is  thereby  transformed  into  soluble  carbonate  of  soda  (NaOjCOx), 
and  a  double  salt  consisting  of  sulphuret  of  calcium  and  lime  (3CaS,CaO),  while  oxide 
of  carbon  (CO)  escapes. 

The  following  equation  shows  the  transformation  : 

3(NaO,S03)    +    4cCaO,CO,)    +    13C   =    3(NaO,CO,)    +    3CaS,CaO    +  14C0. 

Sulphate  of  soda.  Carbonate  of  lime.         Carbon.  Carbonate  of  soda.  Double  salt.         Oxide  of  carbon. 

By  treating  this  black  ash  with  water,  the  carbonate  of  soda  is  dissolved,  while 
the  sulphuret  double  salt  remains  solid.  The  solution  is  drawn  off,  evaporated  to 
dryness,  and  the  soda  ash  obtained  as  a  white-grayish  mass. 

This  soda  ash  is  not  pure — some  sulphuret  and  chloride  of  sodium  are  mixed 
with  it ;  but  if  it  is  again  heated  with  carbon,  redissolved  and  concentrated  by  partial 
evaporation,  the  carbonate  of  soda  will  crystallize  from  the  solution. 

The  crystals  thus  obtained  are  pure  carbonate  of  soda,  with  about  63  per  cent, 
of  water ;  they  contain  therefore  less  soda  in  the  same  weight  than  soda  ash,  and  are, 
as  compared  with  the  latter,  too  expensive  to  be  used  for  the  digestion  of  straw. 

The  United  States  draw  nearly  their  entire  supply  of  soda  from  England,  and 
the  following  remarks,  from  Dr.  Sheridan  Muspratt's  work  on  Chemistry,  which 
illustrate  the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  pioneers  in  its  manufacture  in  that 
country,  may  therefore  prove  interesting  to  the  reader : 


STBAW.  263 

"  The  greatest  source  of  soda,  both  as  applied  to  the  raauiifiicture  of  soap  and  to  all  other  pur- 
poses, is  the  white  ash  or  soda  ash  of  commerce,  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  common  salt.  The 
introduction  of  this  material,  though  it  was  effected  with  much  difficulty,  has  been  the  greatest  stimulus 
the  soap  manufacture  has  ever  received.  Mr.  James  Muspratt,  of  Liverpool,  who  was  the  first  to  carry 
out  Leblanc's  process  on  a  large  scale,  in  the  year  1824,  was  compelled  to  give  away  soda  by  tons  to 
the  soap-boilers  before  he  succeeded  in  convincing  them  of  the  extraordinary  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  it.  As  soon,  however,  as  he  effected  this,  and  when  the  soap-boilers  discovered  how  much  time 
and  money  they  saved  by  using  artificial  soda,  orders  came  in  so  rapidly  that  the  editor's  father,  to 
satisfy  the  demand,  had  his  crude  soda  discharged  red  hot  into  iron  carts,  and  thus  conveyed  to  the 
soap  manufactories." 

210.  Caustic  Soda — its  Purchase  and  Test. — Caustic  soda  is  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO), 
or  carbonate  of  soda  deprived  of  carbonic  acid ;  it  is  always  combined  with  water  to 
hydrate  of  soda,  draws  carbonic  acid  from  the  air  with  great  avidity,  and  is  thus 
retransformed  into  carbonate  so  easily  that  it  can  only  be  preserved  in  hermetically 
closed  vessels,  made  of  a  material  which  is  able  to  withstand  its  destructive  influence. 
It  is  shipped  in  iron  barrels  as  solid  hydrate  of  soda,  and  sold  in  that  form  to  other 
trades ;  but  paper-makers  find  it  mostly  cheaper  to  prepare  their  solutions  by  caus- 
ticizing  soda  ash  with  lime.  We  know,  however,  one  large  firm  who  watched  the 
market  closely,  and  finding,  at  one  time  during  the  late  war  of  secession,  the  relative 
prices  of  caustic  soda  and  soda  ash  to  be  such  that  they  could  substitute  the  former 
for  the  latter,  effected  a  considerable  saving  by  its  use. 

From  10  to  20  per  cent,  only  of  the  so-called  caustic  soda  ash,  which  is  gen- 
erally used  in  paper-mills,  is  really  (hydrated)  caustic  soda  (NaO) ;  the  soda  ash 
being  more  valuable  in  proportion  as  it  contains  more  of  the  latter,  because  it  is  free 
from  carbonic  acid  and  does  not  require  to  be  causticized. 

Soda  ash  is  usually  shipped  in  hogsheads,  containing  from  about  1500  to  2000 
pounds,  which,  through  pores  and  cracks,  permit  to  some  extent  the  access  of  air, 
whereby  the  caustic  soda,  which  may  form  part  of  it,  is  retransformed  into  carbonate, 
if  a  sufiiciently  long  time  elapses  between  its  manufacture  and  consumption. 

The  standard  strength — as  accepted  by  the  trade — of  so-called  caustic  soda  ash, 
or  of  the  carbonated  kinds,  is  48  per  cent.,  which  means  that  there  should  be  48 
pounds  of  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO)  contained  in  100  pounds  of  ash.  Of  all  the  com- 
ponents of  soda  ash,  the  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO)  is  alone  of  value  to  the  paper-maker; 
he  expects  and  is  entitled  to  receive  48  pounds  of  it  in  100  of  ash  ;  but  if  the  pro^^or- 
tion  of  NaO  is  larger,  it  is  also  just  that  the  purchaser  should  pay  for  the  excess  at 
the  same  rate  as  for  the  regular  48  per  cent.  If  the  soda  ash  is,  for  instance,  of  54 
per  cent.,  it  contains  6  per  cent,  or  one-eighth  above  the  regular  48  per  cent.,  and  is 
sold  accordingly  at  nine-eighths  of  the  market  rate. 

Soda  ash  does  not,  like  bleaching  powders,  lose  strength  in  contact  with  the  air ; 
but  it  may  increase  in  weight  by  taking  up  Avater  and  carbonic  acid,  the  latter  uniting 
with  the  hydrated  caustic  soda  (NaO,HO)  and  changing  it  into  carbonate  of  soda. 
The  purchaser  should  therefore  insist  on  paying  only  for  the  original  invoice  weight, 
or,  if  the  actual  weight  is  charged,  he  ought  to  have  the  soda  ash  tested  again,  and 


264 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


accept  as  100  pounds  only  a  quantity  which  contains  48  pounds  of  oxide  of  sodium 
(NaO). 

It  is  useful  in  all  cases  to  have  a  test  made  of  every  large  lot  purchased,  and,  for 
the  benefit  of  those  Avho  wish  to  do  it  themselves,  we  shall  explain  a  simple  method 
for  it.    It  is  called  the 

Alkalimetrical  test,  and  is  based  on  the  reaction  of  alkalies  and  acids  on  litmus 
color.  The  alkalies,  of  which  soda  is  one,  turn  the  red  color  of  litmus  blue,  and 
acids  turn  the  blue  color  red. 

If  to  a  solution  of  soda  just  enough  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  neutralize  it,  so 
that  only  sulphate  of  soda  remains,  neither  the  blue  nor  the  red  color  will  be  changed 
by  the  solution. 

A  test  liquid  of  pure  monohydrated  sulphuric  acid  must  be  prepared  and  so 
diluted  that  one  degree  or  volume  of  the  alkalimeter — a  graduated  glass  vessel,  from 
which  it  is  measured  out — neutralizes  exactly  one  grain  of  oxide  of  sodium  or  anhy- 
drous (caustic)  soda  (NaO). 

A  weighed  quantity  of  the  soda  ash  which  is  to  be  examined,  is  then  dissolved, 
colored  with  a  few  drops  of  blue  litmus  solution,  and  enough  of  the  test  acid  poured 
slowly  into  it  from  the  alkalimeter  to  neutralize  the  soda.  The  blue  color  of  the  liquid 
changes  into  red  as  soon  as  this  point  is  reached,  the  operation  is  then  finished,  and 
the  number  of  degrees  of  the  test  acid,  which  have  been  used,  corresponds  with  an 
equal  number  of  grains  of  soda  (NaO)  contained  in  the  weighed  sample. 

Commercial  soda  ash  is  not  pure ;  it  contains  some  sulphuret  and  chloride  of 
sodium ;  but  the  diluted  acid  used  for  the  test  leaves  the  latter  unchanged  and  only 
combines  with  the  oxide  of  sodium  (NaO)  of  the  carbonated  and  of  the  caustic  soda. 

211.  Preparation  of  the  Solution  of  Caustic  Soda. — It  is  essential  that  the  soda  ash 
should  be  rendered  caustic — that  is,  set  free  from  combination  by  the  removal  of  car- 
bonic acid — as,  if  it  be  in  chemical  union  with  any  other  body,  it  has  no  decomposing 
power  over  the  oils  and  many  other  substances.  Even  if  combined  with  the  weakest 
acids,  saponification  will  not  ensue ;  and  the  greatest  care  should  therefore  be  exer- 
cised in  this  preliminary  process, — the  preparation  of  the  lye. 

The  process  of  causticizing  depends  upon  the  greater  affinity  of  lime  than  of 
soda  for  carbonic  acid,  and  the  decomposition  is  one  of  the  most  simple,  as  shown  by 
the  following  equation : 

NaO,CO,    +    CaO    =    CaO.COj    +  NaO. 

Carbonate  of  soda.         Lime.         Carbooate  of  lime.  Soda. 

Caustic  lime,  which  is  fresh-burnt  lime  or  oxide  of  calcium,  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  the  carbonic  acid  leaves  the  soda  and  joins  the  lime,  forming  the  insoluble 
carbonate  of  lime. 

Caustic  lime  or  oxide  of  calcium  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  must  there- 
fore be  kept  agitated,  so  as  to  be  in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  solution  while  the 
process  of  causticizing  is  going  on. 


STBAW.  265 

The  mixing-pans  may  be  constructed  like  those  for  bleach  liquor,  represented  in 
Figs,  38  and  39,  with  the  difference  only  that  they  must  be  of  iron  (sheet  iron),  as 
caustic  soda  would  destroy  stone  as  well  as  wood.    The  receiver  should  be  large  - 
enough  to  hold  at  least  the  contents  of  one  set  of  two  or  three  pans. 

An  iron  or  brass  valve  must  be  provided  in  the  bottom  of  each  pan,  to  let  out 
the  sediment  of  lime  and  soda  impurities  after  each  operation ;  this  lime  may  either 
be  conducted  into  the  tail-race,  creek,  or  river,  to  run  away,  or  into  cisterns  to  be 
saved  and  utilized. 

Large  pieces  of  burnt  lime,  if  admitted  into  the  pans,  would  obstruct  and  break 
the  agitators ;  the  lime  should  therefore  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
agitator  as  long  as  it  is  not  dissolved. 

A  sheet-iron  basket  of  about  2  to  2|  feet  diameter,  about  2  feet  deep,  with  flat 
bottom,  and  perforated  with  numerous  holes  of  about  \  inch  diameter,  is  hung  up  by 
two  iron  handles  on  an  iron  bar  laid  across  the  pan ;  the  agitator  not  being  high 
enough  to  reach  the  basket. 

The  pieces  of  lime  are  gradually  furnished  into  this  basket,  the  pan  is  filled  with 
water,  and  heated  to  boiling  by  the  introduction  of  steam.  The  hot  water  reaches  the 
lime  through  the  holes,  transforming  it  into  lime-milk,  while  the  cinders  or  unburnt 
stones  remain  in  the  basket  and  are  removed  with  it.  The  soda  ash  is  then  added, 
and  the  whole  mass  kept  agitated  and  boiling  for  three  to  four  hours,  when  the 
agitator  is  stopped  and  the  steam-valve  closed.  After  some  hours  of  rest,  the  sus- 
pended carbonate  of  lime  will  be  found  settled  at  the  bottom,  and  the  clear  liquid  can 
be  drawn  off  into  the  receiver  by  lowering  gradually  the  pipe  e  (Fig.  38). 

The  sediment  is  yet  impregnated  with  solution  of  caustic  soda,  which  must  be 
extracted ;  the  pan  should  therefore  be  again  filled  with  water,  the  agitator  put  in 
motion,  and  the  boiling  recommenced.  While  a  fresh  solution  is  made  in  one  pan,  a 
second  or  weak  extract  is  boiled  in  the  other,  and  both  are  united  in  the  receiver. 

In  some  mills  the  first  solution  is  made  so  concentrated  that  even  a  third  extract 
is  required  to  exhaust  the  sediment.  If  the  second  solution  produces  a  liquid  testing 
more  than  1 1  degrees  Baume,  a  third  one  may  be  of  advantage ;  otherwise  the  amount 
of  soda  saved  would  hardly  pay  for  the  labor  and  steam  spent  on  it. 

If  the  preparation  of  fresh  soda  solution  is  to  go  on  continually,  one  more  mix- 
ing-pan is  also  to  be  provided  for  every  additional  extract. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  liquor  in  the  receiver  should  be  of  the  same  strength  all 
the  time ;  great  care  must  therefore  be  taken  that  a  strong  extract  be  always  united 
with  a  weak  one,  or  with  two,  if  as  many  are  made  of  every  sediment. 

When  the  operation  is  finished,  the  lime  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan  is,  with  the 
aid  of  the  agitator,  mixed  with  water  and  allowed  to  run  off  through  a  valve  and 
spout.  In  most  cases  this  lime  goes  to  waste,  but  it  might  be  conducted  into  receivers, 
freed  from  most  of  the  water  by  draining,  and  burnt  again ;  this  would  be  especially 
of  advantage  where  lime  is  dear  and  fuel  cheap. 

34 


266 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


Musj^ratt  points  out,  in  an  article  on  the  manufacture  of  soap,  an  additional 
advantage,  which  may  be  gained  by  such  a  recovery : 

"  A  fact  deserving  of  mention  in  treating  of  the  preparation  of  lyes  is,  that  in  the  process  of  caus- 
ticizing  by  means  of  lime,  a  portion  of  the  soda  appears  to  enter  into  some  form  of  combination  very 
difficultly  soluble.  Mr.  Kynaston,  a  student  of  the  editor's  (Muspratt),  lately  examining  the  cal- 
careous deposit,  found  it  to  contain,  after  being  well  washed,  soda  to  the  amount  of  5  or  6  per  cent. 
When  the  deposit,  after  being  dried,  is  heated  to  a  temperature  insufficient  to  expel  carbonic  acid,  and, 
after  being  allowed  to  cool,  is  again  drenched  with  water,  caustic  soda  is  then  removed  with  great  ease, 
and  the  deposit  may  be  almost  completely  dejirived  of  soda.  Taking  these  facts  into  consideration,  the 
editor  is  of  opinion  that  it  would  well  repay  the  soap  manufacturer  to  collect  the  lime  deposit,  and, 
after  thorough  desiccation  by  exposure  to  the  air,  to  submit  it  to  heat  until  the  carbonic  acid  is 
expelled.  The  lime,  now  again  become  caustic,  may  be  used  advantageously  in  the  preparation  of 
fresh  lye ;  and  the  process  may  be  repeated  until  the  deposit  becomes  highly  charged  with  the  impuri- 
ties of  the  ash,  when  fresh  lime  may  again  be  used  for  a  new  process." 

If  this  method  for  the  recovery  of  the  lime  is  not  adopted,  it  is  advisable  to  drain 
it  in  receivers  to  such  a  consistency  that  it  can  be  mixed  with  the  deposits  from  wash- 
water  settled  in  pits  or  ditches,  and  with  offal  of  all  kinds,  into  a  valuable  compost- 
manure.  The  author  has  recovered  lime  for  this  purpose  by  simply  running  it  into 
large,  rough  boxes,  through  the  cracks  of  which  the  water  could  drain  off,  leaving 
the  lime  dry  enough  to  be  thrown  out  with  shovels. 

Itjs  better  to  use  an  excess  of  lime  rather  than  to  run  the  risk  that  some  of 
the  soda  will  remain  in  the  solution  as  carbonate,  and,  consequently,  fail  to  assist 
in  the  dissolution  of  the  incrusting  matters  of  the  straw. 

Burnt  lime  contains  quantities  of  caustic  lime  (CaO),  which  vary  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  stone  from  which  it  is  made  and  the  care  taken  in  burning  it ;  the 
proportion  of  caustic  lime  in  it  will  usually  amount  to  from  50  to  90  per  cent.  It 
attracts  quickly  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  especially  if  divided  into 
small  pieces  or  dust ;  the  best  lime,  and  in  lumps,  will  therefore  mostly  be  found  the 
cheapest,  and  it  should  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible. 

The  theoretical  quantity  of  pure  caustic  lime,  required  to  causticize  100  pounds 
of  soda  ash  of  48  ^^er  cent.,  is  only  43  pounds ;  but  our  lime  is  neither  pure  nor  per- 
fectly caustic,  and  from  60  to  more  than  100  per  cent,  (in  most  cases  pound  for  pound 
or  100  per  cent.)  have  to  be  used  in  practice. 

As  the  limestone  may  at  different  times,  even  in  the  same  kiln,  be  differently 
burnt,  and  as  the  lime  may  have  been  stored  during  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  and 
consequently  have  absorbed  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  from  the  air,  the  proportion  of 
caustic  lime  or  oxide  of  calcium,  contained  in  a  certain  weight  of  it,  may  change 
almost  every  day,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  either  to  test  every  new  soda  solution 
as  to  its  causticity,  or  to  use  a  large  excess  of  lime,  or  to  run  the  risk  of  wasting  soda 
by  not  depriving  it  of  its  carbonic  acid. 

The  test  is  easily  made  by  proving  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  the  solu- 
tion, which,  if  found,  is  an  evidence  that  the  operation  has  been  imperfectly  per- 


STB  AW. 


267 


formed,  and  should  be  repeated,  with  a  fresh  addition  of  lime,  until  all  the  carbonate 
is  transformed  into  caustic  soda  (NaO). 

We  take,  after  the  lime  has  all  settled  down,  from  the  clear  liquid  a  glass 
tumblerful  without  creating  the  slightest  motion  in  the  pan  ;  let  the  tumbler  stand 
for  about  fifteen  minutes  in  a  quiet  place,  so  that  any  carbonate  of  lime  which  may 
yet  be  suspended  in  it  will  fall  to  the  bottom  ;  and  then  pour  into  it  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid.  If  carbonic  acid  is  contained  in  the  solution  as  carbonate  of  soda,  the 
acid  will  drive  it  out  by  taking  its  place  and  forming  sulphate  of  soda. 

The  escaping  carbonic  acid  gas  rises  up  in  bubbles  as  in  soda  water,  and  as  long 
as  the  liquid  shows  such  effervescence  on  the  aj3plication  of  the  acid  test,  the  quantity 
of  lime  has  not  been  sufficient,  or  the  boiling  has  not  been  done  in  a  thorough  manner. 
Any  workman  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  be  taught  to  make  this  test,  and  pre]3are 
the  solution  so  that  no  carbonic  acid  can  be  discovered  in  it. 

Care  must  only  be  taken  that  not  a  particle  of  carbonate  of  lime  should  be  sus- 
pended in  the  test-liquid,  as  the  vitriol  would  set  its  carbonic  acid  free,  and  deceive 
the  operator.  To  be  quite  certain  of  it,  the  test-liquid  may  be  passed  through  a  pa23er 
filter. 

The  continued  application  of  the  test  not  only  determines  the  exact  quantity  of 
lime  which  is  necessary  to  causticize  any  given  quantity  of  soda  ash,  but  it  is  also  so 
instructive  to  the  operator  that  he  will  soon  be  enabled  to  judge  the  lime  from  its 
apj)earance,  and  guess  the  correct  proportion  at  once. 

It  has  been  found  that  very  concentrated  solutions  of  caustic  soda  take  up  some 
carbonic  acid  from  the  carbonate  of  lime  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  are  thus  par- 
tially retransformed  into  carbonate  of  soda.  But,  as  solutions  of  such  high  concen- 
tration are  seldom  required  by  the  paper-manufacturer,  this  danger  can  easily  be 
avoided  by  providing  capacious  pans,  which  will  hold  at  least  from  8  to  10  pounds  of 
water  for  every  pound  of  soda  which  is  to  be  dissolved  in  them. 

If  a  very  strong  solution  should  be  required,  the  first  extract  alone  is  to  be  drawn 
off  into  the  receiver,  while  the  following  weaker  ones  are  to  be  used  on  a  fresh  lot  of 
soda  in  the  place  of  water. 

A  practical  comparative  test  of  different  brands  of  soda  ash  can  easily  be  had  by 
making  the  same  quantity  of  solution  from  the  same  number  of  pounds  of  each  kind, 
and  testing  both  at  the  same  temperature  with  the  hydrometer.  The  one  which 
shows  the  highest  specific  gravity  is  the  best  for  the  digestion  of  straw. 

212.  Digestion  by  Boiling. — Boilers,  similar  to  those  used  for  rags,  revolving  hori- 
zontally on  their  long  axes,  are  frequently  employed  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  but 
they  are  either  heated  by  direct  fire,  or  with  steam  circulating  through  a  jacket  or  a 
system  of  pipes.  In  a  few  mills  straw  is  boiled  in  the  same  manner  as  rags,  by  the 
direct  introduction  of  steam  into  the  liquor ;  but  Mellier  is  quite  right  in  condemning 
this  method.  The  steam  in  condensing  dilutes  the  liquor  and  makes  it  continually 
weaker,  while  it  should  become  stronger  towards  the  end  of  the  operation,  in  order  to 
dissolve  those  incrusting  matters  which  have  up  to  that  time  withstood  the  action  of 


268 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAGS. 


the  lye.  It  is  the  author's  experience  that,  everything  else  being  equal,  more  soda 
ash  is  required  when  steam  is  introduced  directly. 

The  application  of  direct  fire  to  rotaries  is  objectionable,  because  some  of  the 
straw  may  adhere  to  the  shell,  and  become  burnt  or  charred  by  the  continued  expo- 
sure to  an  intense  heat;  the  damage  from  this  source  may  even  be  considerably 
increased,  if  the  movement  of  the  boiler  is  unexpectedly  interrupted  by  a  break  in 
the  gearing  or  a  stoppage  of  the  motor. 

A  boiler  of  16  feet  length  and  6  feet  diameter  will  hold  2500  to  3000  pounds  of 
well-packed  and  short-cut  straw. 

This  quantity  cannot  be  gotten  into  a  boiler  of  that  length  unless  it  is  stowed 
away  by  two  or  three  men  inside,  as  soon  as  it  is  put  in  through  the  man-hole.  In 
hot  summer  days  this  labor,  performed  in  more  or  less  heated  boilers,  is  suffocating 
and  very  severe  upon  the  operatives. 

The  boiler,  being  filled  with  a  weighed  quantity  of  straw,  receives  its  portion  of 
soda  solution  through  a  j^ipe,  which  starts  from  the  liquor-receiver,  and  enters  through 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  journals. 

If  possible,  this  receiver,  as  well  as  the  mixing-pans,  should  be  located  at  some 
height  above  the  boilers,  so  that  the  solution  will  run  in  quickly,  impelled  by 
gravitation.  If  the  boilers  are  situated  above  the  receiver,  the  liquor  has  to  be 
pumped  into  them. 

The  man-hole  having  been  closed,  the  boiler,  which  now  contains  its  full  charge, 
is  put  in  motion,  and  the  fire  or  steam  started  and  kept  up  until  a  certain  pressure, 
indicated  by  a  gauge,  has  been  reached  and  sustained  for  the  prescribed  length  of 
time.  Most  of  these  boilers  have  a  perforated  false  head  or  diaphragm,  a  few  inches 
from  the  solid  head,  and  between  the  two  extends  a  stationary  pipe  nearly  to  the 
bottom,  and  another  one  nearly  to  the  top,  both  passing  through  the  journal,  and 
communicating  with  pipes  outside. 

The  liquor  is  forced  out  through  the  lower  Y>i])e  by  the  inside  pressure,  and  neces- 
sarily carries  off  a  considerable  quantity  of  fine  fibres,  which  in  most  mills  are  entirely 
lost.  The  stronger  the  pressure  the  heavier  the  loss,  and  to  reduce  its  violence,  a  portion 
of  the  steam  is  allowed  to  escape  through  the  upper  pipe  before  the  lower  one  is  opened. 

Two  or  three  of  these  boilers  are  sometimes  connected  for  the  purjiose  of  saving 
fuel,  by  blowing  out  the  steam  from  one  into  the  other,  until  the  pressure  is  alike 
in  both. 

Steam  and  liquor  being  blown  out,  the  man-hole  is  opened,  the  boiler  put  in 
motion,  and  emptied  through  a  trough  into  a  large  vat  or  tub,  while  fresh  water  is 
admitted  through  the  pipe  in  one  of  the  journals,  to  assist  the  discharge  of  the  mass. 

In  filling  the  boiler,  portions  of  the  straw  are  sometimes  scattered  outside,  and 
are  carried  into  the  tub  by  the  emptying  fluid  without  having  been  digested. 

Straw  in  its  original  form,  if  allowed  to  get  into  the  pulp,  would  cover  the  paper 
with  yellow  spots,  but  fortunately  it  floats  on  the  surface  in  the  tub,  and  can  be  taken 
off  with  a  skimmer  similar  to  those  used  in  kitchens,  but  of  larger  dimensions. 


STB  AW. 


269 


213.  Washing. — The  vat  or  tub  is  provided  with  a  false  perforated  or  drainer- 
bottom,  covered  with  bagging  or  cocoa-matting,  through  which  the  liquid  can  escape. 
A  large  stream  of  water  should  be  admitted  under  this  false  bottom,  through  which 
it  will  rise,  mixing  with  the  pulp  and  carrying  it  up.  By  stirring  the  thus  diluted 
contents  with  paddles,  allowing  them  to  drain  again,  and  repeating  the  operation 
often  enough,  the  pulp  can  be  pretty  well  washed. 

A  good  washing-engine  is,  however,  the  best  washer  for  any  kind  of  pulp,  and 
may  be  used  either  alone  or  in  addition  to  the  described  wash-tub.  If  the  half-stuff 
is  allowed  to  be  drained  in  the  tub,  it  must  be  taken  from  it  and  carried  to  the  engine 
in  boxes  running  on  trucks ;  but  if  it  is  kept  diluted  and  fluid  enough,  it  may  be 
pumped  into  the  engine  either  directly  from  the  wash-tub,  or  from  a  receiver  into 
which  the  latter  has  been  emptied.  A  common,  good-sized  fan-pump  with  two  wings, 
making  500  to  1000  revolutions  per  minute,  will  perform  the  work  quite  satisfactorily  ; 
it  should  be  connected  in  as  straight  a  manner  as  possible  by  means  of  5-  or  6-inch 
pipes,  with  the  tub  or  receiver  as  well  as  with  the  engine,  so  that  the  pulp  may  flow 
into  it  from  the  former,  and  be  forced  to  the  latter  without  furnishing  an  opportunity 
for  deposits  to  take  j)lace  in  corners  or  bends,  which  would  obstruct  its  passage. 

The  pumjj  is  put  in  motion  whenever  the  engine  is  to  be  filled,  but  it  is  idle 
during  the  remainder  of  the  time,  and  should  therefore  be  provided  with  tight  and 
loose  pulleys  or  with  a  belt-tightener. 

Some  of  the  substances  dissolved  in  the  hot  soda  solution  are  not  soluble  in  a 
cold  one.  To  prevent  them  from  again  assuming  the  solid  state  and  combining  with 
the  straw  fibre,  Mellier  prescribes  the  use  of  hot  water  for  the  first  part  of  the  wash- 
ing operation. 

It  is,  however,  practiced  in  those  mills  only  which  have  an  abundance  of  hot 
water,  especially  in  steam-mills,  where  the  water  is  heated  by  the  steam  which  escapes 
from  the  engines.  The  steam,  which  is  blown  off  from  the  straw-boilers,  would,  if 
conducted  through  a  water-reservoir,  heat  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  which 
might  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

If  any  alkali  is  left  in  the  pulp,  it  will  cause  a  loss  of  chlorine  by  uniting  with 
the  latter  in  the  subsequent  operation  of  bleaching.  Mellier  adds  therefore  about  2  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  fibres,  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  washes  again  afterwards.  This 
is  certainly  correct,  but  takes  time,  and  most  paper-makers  content  themselves  with 
acidifying  the  pulp  immediately  before  bleaching,  so  that  the  surplus  acid  will  com- 
bine with  the  lime  of  the  bleach-solution. 

If  the  straw  has  been  well  digested,  and  its  fibres  are  freed  from  all  incrusting 
and  intercellular  matters,  they  will  be  fine  and  short  enough  to  dispense  with  any 
mechanical  reduction  by  grinding,  and  the  washing-engine  may  therefore  be  supplied 
with  a  smooth  bed-plate  and  blmit  fly-bars ;  sharp  knives  should  not  be  allowed  in 
the  plate  or  on  the  roll. 

From  the  washing-engine  the  pulp  is  emptied  either  into  drainers  or  into  a  stuflp- 
chest.    In  the  first  case  it  is  taken  from  the  drainers  and  treated  like  rag  pulp,  but 


270 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  RAGS. 


if  emptied  into  a  large  stuff-chest  provided  with  an  agitator,  it  is  done  for  the  j)urpose 
of  running  it  over  a  wet-machine. 

214.  The  Wet-Machine,  represented  by  Figs.  92  and  93,  consists  of  a  screen  or 
pulp-dresser,  and  of  a  forming-cylinder  and  first  press,  or,  in  other  words,  of  the 
whole  wet  part  of  a  cylinder-machine  except  the  second  press.  The  upper  press-roll 
is  provided  with  a  scraper,  which  prevents  the  pulp  from  going  round  with  it,  and  a 
stuff-pump  forwards  the  pulp  from  the  stuff-chest  to  the  wet-machine  in  the  same 
manner  as  to  a  cylinder-machine.  The  pulp  should  also  pass  over  a  sand-table,  on 
which  heavy  im23urities,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  mixed  to  some  extent  with  straw, 
may  dej^osit  themselves. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  machine  should  furnish  either  a  continuous  web,  like 
paper,  or  a  very  dry  one,  and  a  wooden  press-roll  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  upper 
iron  one,  or  for  both  the  upj^er  and  lower  one ;  the  felt  is  subjected  to  less  friction 
from  the  lighter  wooden  rolls  and  lasts  longer. 

The  pulp  on  leaving  the  felt  drops  into  a  receiving-box,  and  is  now  ready  for 
bleaching. 

If  wash-water  is  supplied  in  abundance,  it  will  be  preferable  to  let  the  water, 
which  leaves  the  pulp  through  the  forming-cylinder  and  fan-pump,  run  off  into  a 
drainer  or  stuff-catcher,  for  the  recovery  of  any  fibres  which  may  be  contained  in  it, 
instead  of  pumping  it  back  to  be  mixed  with  a  fresh  lot  of  pulp.  Its  place  had  better 
be  supplied  by  clean  water,  and  the  pulp  thus  made  to  undergo  an  additional  washing- 
operation  while  on  the  wet-machine. 

The  wet-machine  should  be  constructed  so  that  the  worn-out  wet-felts  of  the 
paper-machine  will  fit  it,  in  order  to  avoid  a  necessity  for  the  purchase  of  new  ones. 

The  screen  retains  all  the  knots  and  other  parts  of  the  straw  which  have  not 
been  thoroughly  boiled,  and  is  invaluable  as  a  cleaner  and  as  a  corrector  of  all  pre- 
vious mistakes,  and,  to  some  extent,  of  imperfect  digestion. 

The  knots  or  screenings,  which  have  been  removed  from  the  pulp-dresser,  may 
be  either  boiled  by  themselves  a  second  time,  or  returned  to  the  boiler  with  a  fresh 
lot  of  straw,  or  used  for  wrapping  paper. 

A  wet-machine  also  occupies  less  room,  and  produces  the  pulp  more  uniformly 
and  more  quickly  than  drainers,  and  is  almost  indispensable  for  the  manufacture  of 
white  paper  from  vegetable  fibres.  It  may  even  with  advantage  be  used  for  rag- 
pulp. 

Straw  would  have  to  undergo  a  costly  sorting  and  cleaning  process  before  being 
put  into  the  boilers,  if  it  were  not  subsequently  passed  through  a  wet-machine ;  and, 
although  the  latter  takes  the  place  of  sorters,  cleaners,  and  drainers,  it  is  yet  so  easily 
managed  that  it  only  requires  the  supervision  of  one  boy. 

215.  Bleaching. — The  pulp  is  usually  bleached  in  the  engine  like  rags,  but  we 
shall  speak  of  new  patented  methods  in  a  subsequent  article. 

The  art  of  making  paper  from  straw  consists  principally  in  the  extraction  of  the 
pure  fibre,  the  bleaching  being  comparatively  easy. 


STB  AW. 


271 


The  quantity  of  bleaching-powders  required  for  the  purest  straw  fibres  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  for  those  of  rags.    (Particulars  will  be  found  in  article  228.) 

216.  Revolving  Straw-Boilers. — It  has  been  found  that  the  revolving  motion  of 
such  boilers  as  have  been  described  causes  a  considerable  amount  of  friction  between 
the  iron  sides  and  the  straw  and  among  the  straw  itself,  and  that  the  loss  of  many  fine 
fibres  in  the  following  operations  of  washing  and  bleaching  can  be  traced  to  this  source. 

It  is  certainly  preferable  to  move  the  straw  as  little  as  possible,  or  not  at  all,  if 
a  perfect  circulation  of  the  soda  solution  through  a  large  body  of  it  can  be  produced 
in  some  other  way.  The  difficulties  of  filling  horizontal  rotaries,  which  we  have 
already  described,  and  the  hard  labor  which  they  necessitate,  are  alone  sufficient 
to  direct  the  attention  of  manufacturers  to  other  methods  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  same  result. 

217.  Steam-Pressure. — Mellier  prescribes  in  the  specification  of  his  patent  a  tem- 
perature of  at  least  310  degrees  Fahrenheit,  corresponding  with  a  steam-pressure  of 
over  70  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

American  steam-gauges  generally  indicate  0  when  no  steam-pressure  is  acting 
upon  them,  while  the  French  ones  show  in  the  same  place  about  15  pounds,  or  the 
ever  present  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  Consequently  Mellier's  70  pounds  of  the 
French  gauge  are  equal  to  about  55  j)Ounds  of  the  American  gauge. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  good  paper  is  made  from  straw  by  strictly  carrying  out 
Mellier's  directions ;  but,  valuable  as  they  have  been  for  the  progress  of  the  art,  they 
do  not  constitute  the  only  method  by  which  this  can  be  done.  There  are  many  roads 
leading  to  Rome. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  nature  dissolves  the  intercellular  matters  without 
either  a  high  temperature  or  a  concentrated  alkaline  solution.  Caustic  soda,  tempera- 
ture, and  time  are  the  agents  used  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  and  by  an  increase  of 
one  or  two  of  them,  for  instance,  by  the  use  of  more  time  or  soda,  or  both,  the  tem- 
perature or  pressure  may  be  reduced. 

Mellier  recommends  16  pounds  of  caustic  soda  for  100  pounds  of  straw.  100 
pounds  of  standard  soda  ash  contain  only  48  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda  (NaO),  and  16 
pounds  of  caustic  soda  correspond  therefore  with  33^  pounds  of  soda  ash  of  48  per 
cent.,  or  33|  pounds,  or  one-third  of  its  weight  in  soda  ash,  are  to  be  used  for  100 
pounds  of  straw. 

We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that,  with  such  a  quantity  of  soda,  straw  may  be 
well  digested  at  pressures  considerably  less  than  55  pounds  above  the  atmosphere.  Good 
white  paper  has  been  and  is  manufactured  from  straw  by  digestion  in  open  vessels 
without  any  pressure,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  high  temperature,  such  as  is  recom- 
mended by  Mellier,  is,  if  not  indispensable,  yet  of  great  assistance,  and  economical. 

Steam-pressure  is,  however,  not  the  only  means  by  which  a  high  temperature 
can  be  produced ;  superheated  steam  of  low  pressure  will  answer  as  well. 

The  steam-pressure  is  usually  kept  up  from  about  three  to  six  hours,  and  this, 
with  the  time  required  for  filling,  raising  the  steam,  blowing  off,  emptying,  cooling 


272 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAGS. 


off  the  boiler  so  that  men  can  go  in,  brings  the  period  of  one  operation — that  is,  from 
filling  to  refilling — to  at  least  twelve  to  fifteen  hours. 

218.  Pressure  Gauges. — It  is  necessary  that  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  should  be 
indicated  outside,  and  a  small  wrought-iron  pipe  connects  therefore  the  stationary 
blow-off  pipe,  and  through  it  the  interior  of  the  rotary,  wdth  a  steam-gauge.  The 
spring-tube  gauges  used  for  steam-boilers  are  not  suitable  for  this  purpose,  because 
the  alkaline  liquors  may  accidentally  reach  the  spring-tubes,  by  which  they  are  ope- 
rated, and  gum  them  up,  so  that  they  will  not  indicate  the  pressure  with  accuracy. 
The  operator,  not  aware  of  this  fact,  may,  deceived  by  the  gauge,  raise  unintentionally 
a  higher  j^ressure  than  the  boiler  can  bear,  and  cause  an  explosion. 

It  has  been  stated  that  even  the  alkaline  vapors  will  affect  the  spring-tube. 

Gauges  in  which  the  steam  acts  directly  on  mercury  are  generally  used  for 
straw-boilers ;  but  as  they  are  exposed  to  breakage  and  to  the  loss  of  mercury,  it  is 
necessary,  to  connect  the  boiler  also  with  a  safety-valve,  which  prevents  the  pressure 
from  rising  beyond  the  desired  limit. 

219.  Breaking  down  the  Straw. — Mellier  recommends  the  use  of  70  gallons  of 
solution  for  every  100  jiounds  of  straw ;  but  it  is  evident  that  more  or  less  liquid  will 
be  required  as  the  straw  occupies  more  or  less  space,  and  it  has  therefore  always  been 
the  aim  of  paper-makers  to  reduce  the  bulk  of  the  straw. 

It  is  principally  for  this  reason  that  it  is  cut  into  short  pieces,  as  it  can  be  more 
closely  packed  in  that  form.  Mellier  steeps  it  also  in  hot  water  before  it  is  put  into 
the  boiler. 

The  object  of  the  application  of  liquids  is  to  deprive  the  straw  to  some  extent  of 
its  ehisticity,  or  to  break  it  down,  and,  though  even  cold  water  will  assist  in  reducing 
its  volume,  nothing,  except  boiling,  will  do  it  as  effectually  as  a  solution  of  alkali. 
The  liquor,  which  has  already  been  used,  is  therefore  frequently  blown  out  into  a 
receiver,  from  which  it  is  drawn  off  into  large  tubs,  filled  with  cut  straw,  well  mixed 
with  it,  and  finally  discharged  through  a  perforated  false  bottom  and  an  outlet-valve. 

This  waste  liquor  breaks  down  the  straw  thoroughly,  but  also  covers  it  with  a 
thick,  dark  substance,  the  extract  of  straw  dissolved  in  caustic  soda,  which  makes  the 
handling  of  it  yet  more  objectionable,  and  also  seems  to  prevent  the  fresh  solution 
from  acting  as  freely  as  it  would  on  clean  straw. 

The  use  of  waste  liquor  on  fresh  straw  may  in  some  cases  be  profitable  to  the 
mill  by  increasing  the  quantity  of  pulp  made,  but  it  is  certainly  not  beneficial  to  the 
quality. 

220.  Manchester  Paper  Company. — One  of  the  best  articles  of  pure  straw-paper 
has  for  many  years  been  made  by  the  Manchester  Paper  Manufacturing  Company, 
near  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  of  which  John  Priestley  &  Co.  are  the  agents.  . 

The  mill  has  lately  undergone  a  thorough  change,  but  had  previously  been 
worked  in  the  following  manner  : 

Rye-straw,  delivered  by  the  farmers  from  the  surrounding  country  in  nice,  clean 
bundles,  was  exclusively  used,  and  it  may  be  stated  here  that  this  pure,  raw  material. 


STB  AW. 


273 


the  produce  of  highly-cultivated  farms,  gives  an  advantage  to  this  mill  over  many 
others. 

The  straw  was  first  chopped  into  pieces  of  about  |  inch  in  length  by  means  of  a 
cutter,  and,  while  being  fed  to  it,  weeds  and  impurities  were  taken  out  by  hand.  The 
cut  straw  was  freed  from  grain  and  dust  in  a  grain-cleaner,  and  thence  went  to  the 
crushers,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  short,  heavy  iron  press-rolls,  running  with  different 
speeds,  and  as  close  together  as  possible  without  touching  each  other.  The  hollow 
tubes  and  knots  were  thereby  opened  out,  and  made  more  accessible  to  the  action  of 
the  liquor. 

The  straw  thus  cut,  cleaned,  and  crushed,  was  filled  into  horizontal  rotaries,  with 
60  gallons  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  testing  from  3  to  3|  degrees  Baume,  for  every 
100  pounds  of  straw.  These  rotaries  were  walled  in,  heated  by  direct  fire  to  a  pressure 
of  about  60  pounds  above  the  atmosphere,  and  kept  so  for  six  to  eight  hours. 

Two  of  these  boilers  discharged  into  a  tub  with  drainer-bottom,  of  the  kind  pre- 
viously described,  wherein  the  liquor  was  washed  out  as  completely  as  possible. 
From  this  tub  the  pulp  was  emptied  into  a  stuff-chest  serving  as  reservoir  to  a  Kings- 
land  engine,  and  any  knots  or  bundles  of  fibre,  which  might  not  have  been  thor- 
oughly reduced  in  the  boiler,  were  brushed  out  or  separated  during  its  subsequent 
passage  through  the  latter. 

From  this  Kingsland  engine  the  stuff  was  conducted  into  drainers,  and  remained 
there  until  dry  enough  to  be  taken  out  and  furnished  to  an  ordinary  washing-engine. 
There  it  was  washed  again,  bleached  in  the  usual  manner  with  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime,  and  emptied  into  a  second  set  of  drainers. 

The  bleached  pulp  was  taken  from  the  drainers,  mixed  with  size,  color,  and  clay 
in  beating-engines,  then  passed  through  a  second  Kingsland  engine,  and  run  over  a 
Fourdrinier  paper-machine. 

The  paper  made  by  this  process  was  soft,  clean,  and  white,  and,  although  made 
of  straw  alone,  found  a  ready  market  for  book  printing  and  other  purposes  at  higher 
prices  than  were  usually  paid  for  straw-paper. 

The  production  of  the  mill  was  never  forced,  and  the  proprietors  stated  that  the 
operations  were  conducted  more  with  a  view  to  quality  than  to  quantity. 

Since  the  mill  has  been  reconstructed,  the  company  manufacture  paper  from 
rags,  esparto,  and  straw.  The  esparto  and  straw  are  digested  in  the  old  rotaries, 
which  are,  however,  not  heated  by  direct  fire.  Superheated  steam  is  introduced 
through  one  of  the  journals,  and  the  boilers  are  not  allowed  to  revolve  continually, 
but  are  only  occasionally  turned  around. 

The  owners  of  this  mill  state  that  they  obtain  a  yield  of  nearly  50  per  cent,  of 
paper  from  straw,  and  of  nearly  60  per  cent,  from  esparto  (and  clay? — The  Author). 

The  splendid  condition  of  the  straw,  as  compared  with  that  used  at  other  mills, 
may  in  a  measure  account  for  such  an  extraordinary  result;  but  the  proprietors 
attribute  it  in  part  to  the  great  care  with  which  their  operations  are  conducted. 

Everything  is  managed  with  a  view  to  saving  the  fibres ;  the  pulp  in  the  wash-tub, 

35 


274 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAGS. 


for  instance,  is  not  allowed  to  be  stirred  with  paddles,  or  in  any  other  way  except  by 
the  water  itself.    No  part  of  the  raw  material  is  lost,  as  it  is  all  thoroughly  reduced. 

The  author  visited  the  Manchester  Mill  several  years  ago,  and  is  indebted  for 
additional  information  to  Mr.  John  Priestley,  whose  sudden  death,  in  December,  1872, 
must  be  considered  a  serious  loss  to  the  paper  trade,  as  it  undoubtedly  is  to  his  imme- 
diate friends, 

221.  Quantity  of  Soda  Ash  Required. — The  author  has  made  printing-paper  from 
straw  for  many  years ;  has  steeped  the  straw  in  boiling  water  as  well  as  in  hot  waste 
liquor,  and  then  boiled  it  in  horizontal  rotaries  with  pressures  ranging  from  45  to 
110  pounds,  but  has  never  been  able  to  produce  thereby  a  good  article  with  less  than 
25  pounds  of  soda  ash  of  48  per  cent,  for  100  pounds  of  straw.  In  comparing  notes 
with  other  paper-makers  who  have  worked  in  a  similar  manner,  he  has  found  that 
wherever  the  information  given  was  uninfluenced  by  the  possession  of  patent  rights, 
their  experience  was  about  the  same. 

The  proportions  recommended  by  Mellier  may  be  modified  by  crowding  larger 
quantities  of  straw  into  the  boilers,  by  a  preliminary  treatment  of  it,  and  by  the  use 
of  boilers  of  improved  construction. 

222.  Yield  of  Straw. — It  has  been  found  by  numerous  analytical  tests,  that  the 
different  kinds  of  straw  contain  only  from  46  to  50  per  cent,  of  pure  fibre  or  cellulose 
(see  article  205).  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  same  agents  which  dissolve 
the  intercellulose  ai-e  also  destructive  to  the  fibre  if  the  limits  of  time,  heat,  or 
strength  of  liquor  are  overstepped,  and  it  is  practically  impossible  that  this  j)oint 
should  be  reached  to  a  nicety.  It  is  more  likely  that,  while  some  of  the  bundles  of 
fibres  or  pieces  of  straw  are  yet  covered  with  incrusting  matters,  other  easier  accessible 
ones  may  be  perfectly  free,  and  must  necessarily  suffer  while  the  former  are  being 
cleared.  Whenever  the  fibres  are  to  be  extracted  from  the  straw  in  a  perfectly  pure 
state,  it  is,  even  with  the  most  perfect  treatment,  unavoidable  that  a  portion  of  the 
46  to  50  per  cent,  should  be  decomposed,  .or,  that  some  of  the  weaker  cells  should  be 
detached  and  carried  off  mechanically.  Every  one  of  the  operations  following  that 
of  boiling — the  washing,  bleaching,  and  the  formation  of  paper  on  the  machine — are 
causes  of  further  losses  for  straw  as  well  as  for  rag-pulp. 

It  is  the  experience  of  many  experienced  manufacturers  that,  as  a  rule,  not  over 
33  per  cent.,  or  about  one-third  of  its  weight  in  good  white  paper,  can  be  obtained 
from  straw  in  the  rough  condition  in  which  it  is  received  at  most  mills.  If  the  straw 
is  of  extra  good  quality  and  unusually  clean,  the  yield  may  be  somewhat  increased. 

If  it  is  considered  that  rags,  which  consist  almost  altogether  of  once  bleached 
fibres,  lose  from  about  20  to  40  per  cent,  while  they  are  being  manufactured  into 
paper,  it  is  only  reasonable  that  the  46  to  50  per  cent,  of  rough,  unbleached  straw- 
fibres  should  lose  a  similar  proportion. 

If  an  insufficient  quantity  of  soda  be  used,  or  if  the  temperature  be  kej)t  too  low, 
or  if  not  enough  time  be  allowed  for  the  operation,  the  yield  may  be  a  larger  one;  but 
instead  of  pure  fibre,  it  will  consist  partly  of  those  silicates  and  intercellular  matters 


STBAW. 


275 


which  give  to  the  straw  the  faculty  of  standing  upright  in  the  midst  of  storms,  and 
while  carrying  a  considerable  weight.  They  also  give  to  the  paper  the  same  qualities, 
making  it  harsh  and  brittle,  though  it  may,  through  forced  bleaching,  have  become 
perfectly  white.  * 

Keliable  paper-makers  have  repeatedly  stated  that  they  obtain  50  per  cent,  of 
white  paper  from  straw  alone. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  this  can  be  done :  either  by  the  production  of 
paper  of  inferior  quality,  containing  much  of  the  intercellular  matters,  or  by  not 
counting  the  clay  and  size,  which  have  been  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  up 
for  the  lost  fibres. 

B,  New  Patented  Processes. 

223.  Principles  for  the  Construction  of  Straw-Boilers. — The  qualities  which  a  per- 
fect boiler  for  the  digestion  of  straw  should  possess  are: 

That  it  can  be  well  filled  without  much  labor ;  that  the  liquor  be  introduced 
while  the  straw  is  packed  in,  the  latter  thus  broken  down  and  its  bulk  reduced. 

That  the  straw  shall  be  constantly  brought  in  contact  with  different  portions 
of  the  solution,  without  being  subjected  to  any  motion  which  may  damage  it 
by  friction  among  its  own  parts  or  with  the  boiler. 

That  a  high  temperature  can  be  applied  and  sustained  without  the  use  of 
fire  on  any  part  of  the  boiler  which  may  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  straw. 
That  it  can  be  emptied  quickly  and  without  much  labor. 
That  it  be  simple,  and  easily  kept  in  repair. 
The  difficulties  experienced  with  horizontal  revolving  boilers  have  caused  the 
invention  of  a  large  number  of  boilers  of  other  constructions ;  but,  although  the 
author  has  endeavored  during  many  years  to  acquaint  himself  with  all  the  improve- 
ments made  in  this  line,  by  his  own  experience  as  well  as  by  personal  investigation 
of  the  operations  of  other  mills  and  of  the  patent-files  at  Washington,  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  there  may  be  inventions  of  merit  which  have  not  come  to  his  knowledge. 

The  following  pages  will  contain  descriptions  of  those  imj)rovements  only  which 
have  either  been  practically  successful  or  which  present  some  novel  features. 

224.  John  Dixon's  Boiler. — John  Dixon  received  patents  in  1864  for  an  upright 
boiler,  which  seems  to  answer  all  reasonable  expectations.  It  is  represented  in  section 
by  the  following.  Fig.  119,  and  consists  of  a  cylindrical  boiler  a,  standing  upright 
and  immovable  on  its  end,  carried  by  flanges  riveted  to  the  shell  in  any  desired  place, 
and  supported  on  solid  framework  or  walls. 

It  is  located  so  that  the  upper  part  projects  a  few  feet  above  a  floor,  where  the 
straw  is  stored ;  and  a  man  standing  there  can  easily  open  the  manhole  d,  lift  the 
cover  E  from  a  corresponding  opening  in  the  upper  diaphragm  b,  and  fill  the  boiler 
through  them  alternately  with  straw  and  caustic  liquor.  The  straw,  which  has  been 
previously  cut,  is  supported  by  the  lower  funnel-shaped  diaphragm  c,  and  broken  down 


276 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


to  such  an  extent  while  being  packed  in,  that  a  boiler  of  6  feet  diameter  and  15  feet 
height  between  diaphragms  will  hold  from  4000  to  4500  pounds.  A  rotary  pump  f, 
fed  from  the  liquor- tank  through  pipe  g,  forces  the  balance  of  the  caustic  solution 
through  the  coil  h  to  the  top  of  th6  boiler  above  the  diaphragm  b,  and,  after  the 
apportioned  quantity  has  been  pumped  in,  the  communication  with  the  tank  is  cut 
off  by  closing  the  stop-cock  i.  The  caustic  solution  percolates  through  the  straw,  col- 
lects under  the  diaphragm  c,  and  returns  through  pij^e  G  to  the  pump  f,  which  forces 
it  again  through  the  coil  and  on  top  of  the  diaphragm  b. 


Fig.  119. 


I     1  !  !  I  I  I 

r      2'      j'      4'      S'  «' 


The  coil  h  is  made  of  extra  heavy  2  inch  wrought-iron  pipe,  placed  in  a  brick 
furnace,  and  heated  from  the  grate  k.  The  steam  which  is  thereby  raised  creates  a 
pressure,  which  can  be  regulated  by  the  fire,  and  observed  on  gauges  and  safety- 
valves  connected  with  the  upper  part  of  the  boiler. 

Mr.  Dixon  recommends  60  pounds  over-pressure;  he  sets  two.  or  more  boilers 
close  together,  and  fills  one  of  them  with  wood,  chopped  into  pieces  of  1  inch  in  thick- 
ness.   This  wood  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  of  from  9  to  10  degrees 


STB  A  W. 


277 


Baum^,  which,  after  having  served  for  it,  is  used  for  the  digestion  of  straw  in  a 
second  boiler. 

He  recommends  the  blowing  out  of  the  liquor  from  a  boiler  filled  with  (poplar) 
wood  directly  into  one  filled  with  straw ;  but  experience  at  the  Ashland  Mills,  Man- 
ayunk,  Philadelphia,  has  shown  that  no  good  results  can  be  obtained  in  this  way. 
The  operations  are  therefore  conducted  on  the  following  plan  : 

A  caustic  solution  is  prepared  from  1  pound  of  soda  ash  of  48  per  cent,  for  every 
pound  of  paper  obtained  from  wood,  or — as  a  cord  of  wood  furnishes  from  800  to 
1000  pounds  of  white  paper — from  1000  pounds  of  soda  ash  for  every  cord  of  wood. 

The  wood  having  been  digested  with  this  solution,  the  latter  is  blown  through 
the  pipe  p  into  a  receiver,  situated  on  the  upper  floor,  and,  after  having  been  heated 
by  the  direct  introduction  of  steam,  a  portion  of  it  is  drawn  off  and  mixed  with  fresh 
liquor  prepared  for  straw.  Unless  the  liquor  which  has  previously  been  used  on 
wood  is  again  well  heated  and  mixed  with  a  fresh  solution,  the  straw,  which  is  sub- 
sequently boiled  with  it,  will  furnish  an  imj)erfect]y  prepared  j^ulp. 

The  waste  liquor  from  one  boiler  of  wood  is,  by  this  method,  divided  between  two 
or  three  of  straw ;  and  we  have  been  assured  that  25  pounds  of  white  paper  from 
wood  and  75  pounds  from  straw,  or  altogether  100  pounds  of  white  paj)er,  are  thus 
obtained  with  the  use  of  little  more  than  50  pounds  of  soda  ash  of  48  per  cent.,  by  this 
process  of  boiling. 

In  several  other  mills  straw  alone  (no  wood)  is  digested  in  Dixon  boilers,  and 
the  caustic  liquor  used  is  then  only  of  a  strength  indicated  by  3|  degrees  of  Baum^'s 
hydrometer. 

The  time  which  is  required  with  this  boiler  for  one  operation  is  about  the  same 
as  with  rotaries ;  but  it  is  claimed  that  straw  can  be  digested  in  it  with  less  soda  ash 
than  in  the  latter ;  and,  if  we  consider  that  the  losses  from  friction  produced  by 
motion  are  avoided,  and  that  the  straw  occupies  less  space,  and  can  therefore  be  boiled 
with  a  smaller  amount  of  solution,  the  statement  may  well  be  credited. 

From  16  to  20  per  cent,  of  48  per  cent,  soda  ash  and  45  gallons  of  liquor  are, 
according  to  the  best  information  which  we  can  obtain,  used  for  100  pounds  of  straw 
in  Dixon's  boiler,  if  good  white  paper  is  to  be  made. 

The  boiling  being  finished,  the  slide-valve  l  is  opened  from  the  outside  by  turning 
a  screw  and  handle  n,  when  the  contents  empty  themselves  through  the  channel  m  into 
a  chest  or  tank  below.  The  pulp  is  discharged  with  violence  by  the  pressure  of  steam 
inside,  and  to  prevent  it  from  being  splashed  about,  the  receiving  vessel  must  be  well 
inclosed  all  around.  The  pulp  emits  also  large  quantities  of  steam,  for  which  an  outlet, 
in  the  form  of  a  large  pipe  or  stack  on  top  of  this  chamber  or  receiver,  is  provided. 

Simple  as  this  process  seems,  it  has  its  difficulties,  and  requires  good  manage- 
ment and  supervision. 

If  the  fire  under  the  coil  gives  at  any  time  too  intense  a  degree  of  heat,  the 
steam-pressure  may  rise  suddenly,  sometimes  as  high  as  to  120  or  140  pounds,  and, 
instead  of  forcing  the  solution  through  the  straw,  press  the  latter  into  such  a  com- 


278 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


pact  body  that  percolation  througli  it  becomes  impossible.  Tliis  can  be  prevented 
to  some  extent  by  connecting  the  top  with  the  bottom,  outside  of  the  boiler,  by 
means  of  a  one-inch  pipe,  so  that  the  pressure  at  both  ends  and  all  through  the 
cylinder  must  be  always  the  same.  A  careful  man  only,  who  can  manage  the  fire  so 
that  the  pressure  will  remain  uniform,  should  however  be  employed. 

A  pipe,  connecting  with  a  steam-boiler,  enters  below  the  diaphragm  c,  and  is 
opened  whenever  the  compact  mass  of  straw  requires  to  be  loosened ;  it  is  also  used 
before  the  circulation  of  the  liquor  is  started,  and  facilitates  percolation,  as  the  steam 
penetrates  through  and  raises  the  straw  bodily. 

The  simjilest  of  rotary  pumps  is  the  best  for  steady  circulation.  The  Holly 
pump  is  used  in  several  mills,  but  it  has  four  stuffing-boxes,  which  are  to  be  kept  in 
order,  and  the  pumping-cogs  inside  are  liable  to  become  coated,  in  the  course  of  time, 
by  the  gummy  extracts  from  the  straw,  and  may  give  trouble.  Centrifugal  pumps, 
making  1000  to  1500  turns  per  minute,  throw  the  solution  constantly  against  the 
periphery,  and  thus  keep  it  away  from  the  stuffing-boxes.  They  are  simple,  have  no 
parts  which  can  be  clogged,  and  seem  to  answer  very  well  for  this  purpose. 

Soapstone  packing  has  been  found  to  endure  the  action  of  caustic  soda  better 
than  any  other. 

The  liquor  becoming  saturated  with  the  soluble  part  of  the  straw,  and  also  carry- 
ing mechanically  some  fine  fibres,  sometimes  deposits  these  substances  through  the 
action  of  the  fire  as  a  pasty  mass  on  the  inside  of  the  coil-pipes,  where  they  accumu- 
late, so  as  to  fill  entirely  some  parts  of  the  pipe  and  to  stop  the  circulation.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  pump,  hooks,  and  similar  contrivances,  have  been  found  entirely  inade- 
quate to  remove  such  obstructions. 

Whenever  they  occur,  the  coil  should  be  disconnected  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  boiler,  as  much  water  as  possible  forced  into  it  by  means  of  the  pump,  and  its 
communication  with  the  latter  shut  off  by  the  closing  of  a  stop-cock.  Fire  must 
then  be  started  under  the  coil,  and  the  water  in  it  transformed  into  steam  until  the 
pressure  is  strong  enough  to  force  out  the  obstructions  at  the  upper  open  end.  An 
explosion,  which  is  sometimes  as  loud  as  the  report  of  a  gun,  accompanies  the  dis- 
charge, and  gives  an  idea  of  the  pressure  which  was  required. 

It  seems  that  the  circulation  of  a  liquid  through  a  stationary  column  of  straw 
becomes  more  difficult  as  the  latter  is  gradually  transformed  into  ])u\i). 

The  Dixon  boilers  have,  however,  been  in  successful  operation  for  over  five  years 
at  the  Inquirer  Mills  and  the  Ashland  Mills  at  Manayunk,  Philadelphia,  and  at  several 
others. 

225.  William  Ladd's  Patent  Boiler. — William  F.  Ladd,  general  manager  of  the 
American  Wood-Paper  Company,  has  received  a  patent,  dated  May  30th,  1871,  for  a 
horizontal  rotary  boiler,  which  can  be  turned  end  over  end,  on  journals,  attached  to  it 
in  the  middle  of  its  length,  so  as  to  stand  upright,  while  it  is  charged  with  straw 
through  a  man-hole  in  one  of  the  heads ;  but  we  are  not  aware  that  such  a  boiler  is 
anywhere  in  practical  use. 


STB  AW. 


279 


226.  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson's  Patent. — The  table  in  article  205,  whicli  gives  the 
composition  of  different  kinds  of  straw,  shows  also  the  proportions  of  intercellular 
substances,  which  may  be  extracted  by  water.  In  order  to  obtain  such  an  extract  for 
experiments  some  straw  may  be  boiled  in  water,  when  the  latter  will  be  transformed 
into  an  acid  fluid,  from  which,  on  the  adchtion  of  an  alkali,  a  gelatine-like  mass  is 
precipitated.  This  sediment,  although  soluble  in  water,  is  evidently  insoluble  in 
alkaline  liquids,  and  the  conclusion  suggests  itself  from  this  fact,  that  boiling  in  water 
should  precede  the  treatment  of  straw  with  caustic  soda  in  our  mills,  in  order  to 
remove  it.  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson,  of  Philadelphia,  who  has  been  for  many  years 
chemical  expert  of  the  American  Wood-Paper  Company  in  several  of  their  lawsuits, 
has  made  numerous  experiments  on  this  subject,  and  embodied  the  results  in  the  fol- 
lowing specification  of  his  patent,  dated  July  11th,  1871 : 

"  The  object  of  the  invention  is  to  produce  a  fibrous  mass  from  straw,  which  shall  be  capable  of 
being  felted  and  formed,  into  sheets  and  suited  for  paper-making,  and  when  desired  to  be  of  a  white 
color,  to  be  easily  bleached ;  the  production  of  such  a  pulp  to  be  accomplished  with  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  time,  labor,  fuel,  alkali,  and  bleach,  the  process  being  capable  of  such  modifications  as  will 
admit  of  the  relative  adaptation  or  proportioning  of  these  expenditures,  so  as  to  suit  the  changes  of  the 
market  value  of  each  element,  from  time  to  time,  and  thus  to  secure  the  most  economical  results.  The 
invention  consists  in  the  combined  use  of  a  water  bath  in  an  open  vessel,  or  under  pressure,  together 
with  boiling  in  caustic  or  carbonated  alkaline  solutions,  either  under  pressure  or  in  an  open  vessel,  as 
hereinafter  described ;  bleach  to  be  used  with  the  product  when  desired. 

"  By  experiment  I  have  ascertained  that,  by  boiling  straw  in  ordinary  soft  water,  we  can  extract  a 
certain  amount  of  its  substance,  amounting  in  some  instances  to  more  than  70  per  cent,  of  its  weight, 
the  amount  depending  upon  the  volume  of  water  used,  and  upon  the  duration  of  the  boiling,  and  the 
temperature  to  which  the  solution  is  subjected.  The  straw,  when  subjected  to  the  treatment  of  boiling 
in  a  moderate  amount  of  water  and  at  not  too  high  a  temperature,  loses  its  bright  color  and  character- 
istic rigidity,  and  becomes  changed  into  a  soft  and  pliant  material,  which  will  easily  split  into  fila- 
ments, but  which  will  not,  without  further  chemical  treatment,  be  converted  into  suitable  puljj,  or 
easily  whiten  by  the  application  of  bleach,  and  is  not  fit  to  be  formed  into  white  paper.  If  this  boiling 
in  water  is  made  at  too  high  a  temperature,  the  straw  will  be  broken  up  into  a  fibrous  mass  of  dark 
color,  which  cannot  be  converted  into  a  pulp  fit  for  white  paper  by  means  of  subsequent  treatment  with 
a  moderate  percentage  of  alkali  or  bleach.  I  have  also  found  that  the  matter  extracted  from  straw 
by  boiling  in  water  has  acid  reactions,  and  that  it  will  neutralize  a  considerable  amount  of  alkali.  I 
have  also  found  that  the  acid  solution  produced  is  capable  of  dissolving  portions  of  the  intercellular 
matter  of  the  straw,  which  are  not  so  readily  dissolved  either  in  water  or  solutions  of  caustic  or  car- 
bonated alkali.  I  have  further  found  that,  by  treating  straw  with  a  proper  amount  of  water  for  a 
longer  time  at  a  low  temperature,  or  for  a  shorter  time  at  a  high  temperature,  we  are  enabled  to  pro- 
duce a  good  pulp  by  boiling  the  resultant  product  in  a  solution  containing  a  much  less  percentage  of 
caustic  or  carbonated  alkali  than  is  necessary  when  the  straw  is  treated  only  by  caustic-alkali  solutions, 
and  at  a  lower  temperature  than  by  any  other  means  known  to  me,  and  that  the  said  pulp  will  whiten 
with  less  percentage  of  bleach  than  any  pulp  produced  at  similar  temperatures,  and  by  the  use  of  an 
equal  percentage  of  alkali.  Furthermore,  I  have  found  that  by  the  combined  use  of  a  water  treatment 
at  a  high  temperature,  and  the  use  of  an  alkaline  bath  of  much  less  percentage  of  caustic  alkali  than 
is  now  employed,  also  at  a  high  temperature,  a  pulp  is  produced  from  straw  that  will  whiten  with  a 
less  percentage  of  bleach  than  that  produced  by  any  process  now  known  to  me ;  and  that  by  properly 
proportioning  the  amount  of  water  used,  and  the  pressure  and  the  percentage  of  cajistic  or  carbonated 
alkali  used  and  the  temperature,  we  can  obtain  from  straw  a  greater  percentage  of  pulp  fit  for  making 
good  white  paper  than  can  be  obtained  by  any  other  process  or  processes  that  I  have  a  knowledge  of. 


280 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


"  I  take  any  given  amount  of  straw,  and  (after  washing  it  and  cutting  it  into  short  pieces,  or  not,  at 
pleasure)  place  it  in  a  boiler  with  from  six  to  nine  times  its  weight  of  water — say  seventy  to  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  gallons  of  water  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  straw — and  boil  it  from  two  to  ten  hours  in 
an  open  boiler,  keeping  up  the  supply  of  water  as  lost  by  evaporation,  or  from  thirty  minutes  to  three 
hours  in  a  closed  boiler,  at  any  temperature  that  is  convenient,  say  from  zero  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  per  square  inch.  The  temperature,  and  volume  of  water,  and  time  of  boiling,  determine  the 
amount  of  alkali  and  the  temperature  necessary  for  the  second  part  of  the  process,  and  greatly  influ- 
ence the  percentage  of  pulp  obtainable.  The  less  the  amount  of  extractive  matter,  within  the  limits 
hereinafter  indicated,  removed  by  the  water,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  alkali  and  temperature 
necessary  to  produce  a  pulp  that  will  whiten  with  a  given  percentage  of  bleach.  I  do  not  limit  myself 
to  the  exact  amount  of  water,  as  herein  expressed,  in  Avhich  the  straw  is  to  be  boiled ;  for,  in  order  to 
produce  the  most  economical  results,  it  is  necessary  to  adapt  it  to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  straw  to 
be  treated.  In  the  operation  with  an  open  vessel,  water  enough  should  be  used  to  remove  from  12  to 
20  per  cent,  of  the  substance  of  the  straw.  For  the  production  of  a  finer  pulp,  and  when  the  boiling  in 
water  is  under  pressure,  the  volume  of  water  and  temperature  should  be  so  proj^ortioned  as  to  remove 
from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  substance  of  the  straw.  The  volume  of  water  to  be  employed,  as  before 
specified,  I  have  found  suitable  for  use  with  good  dry  wheat  and  rye  straw  from  six  to  twelve  months  old, 
and  from  which  the  knots  have  not  been  removed.  If  the  boiling  in  water  is  carried  on  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  remove  more  than  45  per  cent,  of  the  substance  of  the  straw,  the  percentage  of  the  pulp 
obtained  will  be  very  much  diminished,  and  without  a  corresponding  useful  diminution  of  the  alkali 
necessary  for  the  second  part  of  the  treatment,  or  of  the  bleach  necessary  to  whiten  the  pulp.  And  if 
the  boiling  be  carried  on  with  such  a  volume  of  water,  and  at  such  a  high  temperature  as  to  break  up 
the  structure  of  the  straw  and  to  reduce  it  to  filaments  or  fibres,  it  will  be  found  that  the  result  cannot 
be  easily  converted  into  a  pulp  fit  for  white  paper  by  subsequent  treatment  with  alkali  or  bleach,  or 
both  combined.  I  find  that  the  best  results  can  be  obtained  by  the  employment  of  from  55  to  80 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  as  a  'high'  pressure  for  either  the  first  or  second  part  of  the  treatment, 
and  that  the  only  advantage  in  using  a  higher  pressure  is  to  shorten  the  time  of  treatment  necessary, 
and  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  use  of  such  higher  pressures  entail  a  percentage  of  loss  by  the  mechan- 
ical detachment  and  separation  of  the  more  minute  vessels  in  the  pulp,  so  that  they  pass  off  in  the 
water  employed  to  cleanse  the  pulp  in  subsequent  stages  of  its  preparation.  I  have  found  that  by 
boiling  straw  in  an  open  vessel  for  ten  hours  with  nine  times  its  weight  of  water,  I  could,  by  boiling 
the  result  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (NaO),  containing  of  caustic  soda  an  amount  equal  to  14  per 
cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  straw,  produce  a  pulp  at  45  pounds  pressure  (about  300  degrees  Fah- 
renheit) that  would  whiten  with  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  bleach  ;  and  that  by  boiling 
straw  in  seven  times  its  weight  of  water,  at  a  pressure  of  100  to  120  pounds  per  square  inch,  for  half 
an  hour  to  an  hour,  and  again  boiling  the  result  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (NaO),  containing  of 
caustic  soda  an  amount  equal  to  11  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  straw,  for  two  hours,  at  a  pressure  of 
seventy  pounds,  I  could  produce  a  pulp  that  would  whiten  with  less  than  12  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of 
bleach.  The  straw  is  best  prepared  by  cutting  into  small  pieces  and  washing  it,  although  neither 
operation  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  then  to  be  subjected  to  the  process  of  boiling  in  water,  as  before 
described,  either  in  an  open  vessel  or  under  pressure ;  the  water  is  then  to  be  drawn  off  or  blown  off, 
and,  while  the  material  is  still  hot,  the  alkaline  solution  is  to  be  run  on,  and  the  second  part  of  the 
treatment  gone  on  with. 

"  I  have  allowed  the  resultant  material  from  the  water  boiled  to  become  dry  between  the  stages  of 
the  process,  but  it  is  much  better  not  to  do  so.  As  soon  as  the  matei-ial  is  sufficiently  boiled  in  the 
alkaline  solution,  it  can  be  treated  by  any  preferred  mode  for  disintegrating,  screening,  washing,  and 
bleaching.  By  boiling  straw  in  the  larger  volume  of  water  and  at  a  high  pressure  (over  55  pounds), 
we  obtain  a  result  which,  if  treated  with  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  containing  of  caustic  soda  (NaO) 
an  amount  equal  ^o  10  or  12  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight  of  sti'aw,  also  at  a  high  pressure,  we 
obtain  a  moderate  percentage  of  pulp,  which  will  readily  whiten  with  a  small  amount  of  bleach,  and 
will  make  a  soft  and  fine  white  paper.    By  boiling  straw  with  about  seven  times  its  weight  of  watei-, 


STRAW. 


281 


at  a  jiressure  of  60  to  80  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  from  thirty  minutes  to  an  hour,  and  blowing  out 
the  solution,  and  then  boiling  the  resultant  product  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  containing  of  caustic 
soda  (NaO)  an  amount  equal  to  10  or  12  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight  of  straw  at  a  pressure  of  45 
to  50  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  we  obtain  a  larger  percentage  of  pulp,  and  one  that  will  whiten 
readily  with  a  moderate  amount  of  bleach. 

"  To  produce  a  pulp  from  which  an  ordinary  paper  can  be  made — one  not  required  to  be  of  a  pure 
white  color — it  is  only  necessary  to  make  the  boiling  in  water  in  a  large  volume  of  water,  and  in  an 
open  vessel,  and  to  boil  the  result  in  a  caustic  alkaline  solution,  at  any  pressure  above  atmospheric 
pressure  (the  less  the  pressure  the  greater  percentage  of  pulp  obtained),  or  to  boil  the  straw  in  a  smaller 
volume  of  water,  at  any  pressure  above  atmospheric  pressure  (212  degrees  Fahrenheit),  and  then  to 
boil  the  result  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali,  in  an  open  vessel. 

"  To  produce  a  pulp  that  will  make  a  fine  and  soft  white  paper  from  straw  alone  requires  that 
both  boilings  be  made  under  pressure,  and  if  both  be  made  at  a  pressure  giving  a  temperature  above 
310  degrees  Fahrenheit,  a  minimum  of  alkali  and  bleach  will  be  required,  but,  at  temperatures  above 
310  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the  yield  of  pulp  diminishes  considerably,  and  such  temperatures  should 
only  be  used  when  great  economy  of  time  and  of  bleach  is  necessary,  and  a  very  soft,  white  paper  is 
desired. 

"  I  find  it  useful  to  run  or  blow  the  acid  liquor  (obtained  by  boiling  the  straw  in  water)  through 
the  straw  that  is  about  to  be  subjected  to  the  process  of  boiling  in  water,  and  that  it  is  useful,  after 
having  blown  off"  the  acid  liquor,  to  blow  or  run  the  waste  alkaline  solution  over  the  result  (obtained 
from  the  straw  by  boiling  it  in  water),  to  insure  the  removal  or  neutralization  of  the  acid  extract, 
which  would  otherwise  neutralize  and  render  inefficient  a  portion  of  the  alkali  employed  in  the  second 
part  of  the  process.  The  waste  solution  retains  sufficient  alkaline  properties  to  neutralize  the  acid 
solutions  remaining  in  the  interstices  of  the  material  about  to  be  subjected  to  a  boiling  in  an  alkaline 
solution.  In  the  treatment  in  an  open  vessel  the  boiling  may  be  effected  by  means  of  a  fire  beneath 
it,  or  by  steam-pipes  or  jackets,  or  by  jets  of  steam  blown  into  or  through  the  liquid  in  which  the 
straw  or  material  has  been  immersed." 

We  are  not  aware  that  this  process  of  treating  the  straw  with  hot  water  in  the 
manner  described,  before  it  is  boiled  with  caustic  soda,  has  ever  been  carried  out  on  a 
large  scale  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  warrant  any  valuable  practical  conclusions 
regarding  it. 

227.  Morris  L.  Keen's  Process  and  Patents. — Mr.  Morris  L.  Keen,  who  has  been 
for  many  years  connected  with  the  American  Wood-Paper  Company,  has  received 
several  patents  for  a  process  of  making  wood  and  straw  pulp,  by  which  everything 
that  can  be  removed  from  wood  or  straw,  by  means  of  water  and  steam,  is  first 
extracted  before  caustic  lye  is  used.  This  is,  though  done  in  a  different  way,  substan- 
tially what  Dr.  Cresson  aims  at. 

Mr.  Keen's  process,  however,  has  been  in  practical  operation  at  Messrs.  Israel  D. 
Condit  &  Co.'s  mill,  at  Shawaugunk,  N.  Y.,  and  has  furnished  some  very  fine  pulp. 
The  mill  was  destroyed  by  fire  September  20th,  1872,  but  we  understand  that  it  is 
being  rebuilt,  and  is  to  be  again  supplied  with  Mr.  Keen's  boilers. 

The  description  of  the  process  given  in  the  patent  dated  October  18th,  1870, 
reads  as  follows : 

"  I  will  describe  the  invention  as  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  pulp  from  poplar  or  analogous 
soft  woods. 

"After  wood  has  been  reduced  to  fine  chips  by  any  suitable  cutter  or  machine,  the  chips  or 

36 


282 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  EAGS. 


shavings  are  put  in  a  close,  strong  boiler,  one  of  an  upright  form  preferred,  fitted  with  a  perforated 
false  bottom  inside,  so  that  the  stock  under  treatment  can  be  drained  off  by  means  of  a  cock  in  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler,  communicating  with  space  under  the  false  bottom. 

"A  discharge-valve  also  is  fitted  to  a  passage  through  both  bottoms,  communicating  with  the 
interior  of  the  boiler,  so  that  the  stock  of  pulp,  when  finished,  can  be  discharged  or  blown  out  under 
pressure  into  a  suitable  receiver  or  tank  for  said  purpose. 

"The  boiler  is  also  provided  with  a  top  screen  or  perforated  diaphragm,  fitted  across  the  inside  of 
the  top  of  the  boiler,  allowing  a  steam-space  above  the  screen. 

"The  boiler  is  charged  either  through  a  manhole  above  or  below  the  screen,  a  portion  of  the  screen 
being  removed  in  the  former  case  to  admit  of  charge. 

"After  the  boiler  is  charged  with  the  wood  and  the  manhole  secured,  steam  is  admitted  to  the 
boiler  from  a  separate  generator,  by  means  of  pipes  at  the  top  of  the  boiler,  and  manipulated  at 
pleasure. 

"After  steaming  the  stock  for  thirty  minutes,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  fineness  of  the 
shavings  or  chips,  at  a  temperature  of  from  300  to  400  degrees  Fahrenheit,  the  drain-cock  is  opened 
at  the  bottom,  and  the  condensed  water  drawn  off.  Hot  water  is  now  injected,  at  a  temperature  of 
from  300  to  400  degrees  Fahrenheit,  above  the  screen  into  the  steam-space,  and  percolates  freely 
through  the  stock  under  treatment,  and  washes  out  the  interstitial  matter. 

"By  alternating  the  treatment  from  steam  to  water  and  water  to  steam  every  five  or  ten  minutes, 
for  thirty  minutes  or  more,  according  to  the  previous  condition  and  kind  of  stock  under  treatment,  it 
will  be  found  that  at  least  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  interstitial  matter  of  straw  or  dry  wood  will  have 
been  removed,  and  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  green  wood  will  have  been  removed. 

"All  dry  stock  may  be  steeped  with  advantage  in  hot  or  cold  water,  as  a  preliminary  process. 

"The  charge  is  now  ready  for  the  alkaline  treatment,  but  if  thought  desirable  it  can  be  drawn 
from  the  boiler  and  more  thoroughly  washed,  and  more  of  the  interstitial  matter  thus  removed,  or  it 
can,  in  this  stage,  be  made  into  common  brown  paper. 

"The  stock,  as  left  in  the  boiler  after  the  steam  and  hot-water  percolation,  may  be  transferred, 
with  or  without  extra  washing,  to  another  boiler,  or  retained  in  or  returned  to  the  same  in  which  it  was 
originally  steamed,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  alkali,  either  in  a  carbonate  or  caustic  form,  in  solu- 
tions of  the  strengths  and  temperatures  described  below,  and,  as  most  of  the  interstitial  matter  has  been 
previously  removed,  it  is  easily  reduced  to  a  pulp,  with  about  33  per  cent,  of  the  alkali  now  used  by 
any  other  of  the  present  approved  manufacture  of  wood  or  straw-paper ;  that  is  to  say,  a  good  pulp  can 
be  produced  by  boiling  the  stock  of  wood  or  straw,  &c.,  previously  cleaned  of  much  of  the  interstitial 
matter  by  the  steaming  and  hot  water  process,  in  solutions  of  caustic  alkali  of  20  to  25  per  cent,  of 
Avood-pulp  produced,  and  in  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  caustic  alkali  to  straw-pulp  produced. 

"The  strength  of  alkali  preferred  for  wood  is  about  10  to  12  degrees  ^ume;  that  for  straw, 
6  to  8  degrees ;  though  much  weaker  solutions  will  answer  nearly  as  well. 

"The  alkali  is  first  charged  for  wood,  at  the  rate  of  1  gallon  at  8  degrees  Baum6  to  every  pound 
of  wood  under  treatment,  and  for  straw,  1  gallon  at  5  degrees  Baume  to  every  pound  of  straw  under 
treatment,  and  the  heat  raised  in  the  boiler  to  a  temperature  indicated  by  10  to  30  pounds  pressure  on 
the  steam-gauge. 

"I  have  made  good  pulp  at  10  pounds  pressure,  and  have  also  pulped  the  wood,  straw,  and  similar 
materials,  having  been  previously  acted  on,  in  the  manner  described,  by  steam  and  hot  water,  in  open 
vessels,  without  any  pressure  whatever.  It  is,  however,  preferred  to  treat  the  stock,  under  the  pressure 
of  30  pounds,  in  a  close  boiler,  in  caustic  alkali  of  strength  described,  as  the  action  desired  is  obtained 
under  the  heat  indicated  by  that  pressure  in  a  shorter  lime  than  at  a  lower  temperature. 

"With  most  stock  this  should  be  continued  about  one  hour.  I  do  not,  however,  confine  myself  to 
the  pressures  or  temperatures  named,  as  higher  pressure  can  be  used  to  nearly  equal  advantage,  and 
lower  steaming  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  those  named  seem  to  be  about  the  best  for  commercial  use. 

"  It  is  important  that  no  considerable  quantity  of  steam  be  allowed  to  condense  in  the  boiler  at 


STB  AW. 


283 


this  stage,  as  it  would  weaken  the  strength  of  the  solution.  I  therefore  prefer  to  maintain  the  temper- 
ature by  the  admission  of  steam,  at  a  proper  pressure,  to  an  exterior  jacket  alone,  or  to  a  jacket  and 
coils,  or  other  provisions  for  heating  the  interior. 

"  The  construction  of  the  boiler  should,  in  this  respect,  depend  much  on  its  size.  If  the  boiler  is 
large,  ample  provision  should  be  made  for  introducing  heating-surfaces  in  its  interior.  If  small,  the 
heat  may  be  maintained  from  the  exterior  sufficiently. 

"The  alkali  is  now  drawn  off  at  the  drain-cock  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  measure  for  measure ; 
that  is,  the  stock  is  now  freed  by  percolation,  and  a  sudden  injection  of  steam,  in  the  top  of  the  boiler, 
over  the  stock. 

"The  stock  is  now  steamed  again  under  high  pressure,  indicated  by  from  70  to  200  pounds  by 
steam-gauge,  and  hot  -^ater  also  injected  at  the  temperatures  corresponding  to  those  pressures,  to  which 
treatment  and  which  temperature  the  charge  is  kept  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  and  then  drawn  out  or 
blown  out  into  a  proper  receiving-tank,  drained,  and  washed  by  percolation,  and  assumes  the  condition 
of  good  gray  pulp,  ready  for  bleaching  by  any  of  the  ordinary  known  methods. 

"The  stock,  in  a  cleansed  state,  at  this  stage  of  process,  prior  to  its  discharge  from  the  boiler,  may 
be  again  subjected  to  percolation  by  steam  and  hot  water,  so  as  to  remove  a  great  part  of  the 
extraneous  matter  liberated  by  the  last  steaming  and  hot-water  treatment,  and  a  solution  of  weak 
chloride  of  soda,  less  than  1  degree  Baume,  admitted  to  the  boiler,  which  is  raised  to  a  temperature  of 
300  degrees  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  the  stock  then  blown  out.  This  greatly  improves  the  color 
of  the  stock. 

"  The  alkali  drained  off  from  the  boiler  is  reserved  and  replenished  for  future  use  ;  that  is,  one- 
sixth  of  its  original  quantity  is  discarded  and  set  aside  for  the  recovery-furnace,  and  that  quantity,  by 
measure,  at  a  strength  of  from  10  to  12  degrees  Baume  for  wood,  and  of  the  straw-liquor  the  same 
quantity,  one-sixth,  is  discarded,  and  a  fresh  charge  or  amount  of  one-sixth  new  liquor,  or  caustic 
alkali,  is  added,  at  a  strength  of  6  to  8  degrees  Baum6,  or  such  strength  as  to  maintain  the  proper 
strength  in  the  liquor.  And  this  order  is  preserved  of  discarding  one-sixth  of  alkali  used  in  every 
boiling,  and  replacing  the  same  with  new  alkali. 

"The  waste  or  discarded  alkali  can  be  recovered  in  suitable  evaporating  furnaces,  at  a  loss  of  from 
10  to  15  per  cent,  for  recovery  of  said  waste. 

"The  boiler,  in  the  alkaline  treatment,  may  be  heated  by  an  auxiliary  coil,  through  which  the 
large  amount  of  alkali  freely  circulates,  and  in  which  the  bulk  is  retained  during  the  discharge  of 
waste  alkali,  or  any  other  desirable  method  to  economize  time  and  heat. 

"The  first  steaming  and  hot-water  treatment  may  be  dispensed  with,  and  good  pulp  produced 
from  straw  and  very  finely  reduced  woods  of  non-resinous  character,  by  simply  boiling  the  same  in 
solutions  of  caustic  alkali  of  strength  indicated,  with  the  subsequent  percolations  and  steaming ;  but 
the  renewal  of  liquor  at  subsequent  boilings  must,  in  such  case,  be  increased  from  two  to  threefold,  as 
the  interstitial  matter  not  removed  by  first  steam  and  hot-water  process  has  to  be  overcome  by  extra 
amount  of  caustic  alkali. 

"Although  I  esteem  the  above  process  entire,  and  all  the  several  novel  parts  thereof,  more  par- 
ticularly valuable  in  its  application  to  wood  and  straw,  I  believe  it  may  be  used  with  much  benefit  on 
various  other,  and,  in  short,  nearly  or  quite  all  paper  material.  The  first  portion  of  it,  to  wit,  the 
extraction  of  most  of  the  interstitial  matter  by  the  alternate  steam  and  hot-water  treatment  at  high 
temperatures,  I  propose  particularly  to  employ  in  preparing  paper-stock  from  hemp,  flax,  and  tow  of 
either  or  both. 

"  I  can  use  carbonate  of  soda,  or  other  alkaline  carbonates,  instead  of  caustic  alkalies." 

On  May  2d,  1871,  followed  the  patent  for  an  apparatus  by  which  this  process 
was  to  have  been  put  in  operation.  It  is  represented  by  Fig.  120  and  the  following 
description,  both  copied  from  the  letters-patent : 


284 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  RAGS. 


"My  invention  is  adapted  to  tlie  treatment  of  wood,  straw,  cane,  esparto  grass,  flax,  flax  tow, 
hemp,  hemp  tow,  jute,  jute  tow,  manilla  grass  or  rope,  manilla  tow,  and  all  analogous  materials  or 
vegetable  substances  for  the  manufacture  of  paper-stock  or  pulp  therefrom. 

"It  has  long  been  common  to  treat  some  or  all  of  these  materials  with  alkaline  solutions. 

"My  invention  constitutes  a  novel  and  convenient  apparatus  for  applying  the  alkali  and  main- 
taining the  temperature  in  the  alkaline  solution  preparatory  to  and  during  the  treatment  of  the  paper- 
stock  with  said  solutions. 

Fig.  120. 


"I  heat  the  alkaline  fluid  by  a  coil,  through  which  the  alkali  circulates,  to  which  coil  is  attached, 
in  an  elevated  position,  a  large  alkali-reservoir  or  charging-drum  A  (Fig.  120).  A  fire  being  main- 
tained in  a  furnace,  in  connection  with  the  coil,  the  alkali  is  heated  at  each  passage  through  the  coil. 

"  The  coil  is  inclosed  in  a  casing  b,  and  may  be  of  any  ordinary  construction.  The  alkali  circu- 
lates between  the  coil  b  and  the  charging-drum  A,  and  thus  maintains  any  desired  temperature  in  the 
charging-drum  for  any  period. 

"  Under  these  conditions,  when  the  stock-boiler  c  is  charged  with  the  alkali,  it  is  done  at  the 
desired  temperature,  which  temperature  is  maintained  in  stock-boiler  c  by  circulation  of  the  alkali 
through  the  coil. 

"  I  take  care  to  make  the  charging-drum  A  of  such  capacity,  and  to  supply  such  a  quantity  of 
alkali  thereto,  that  there  shall  remain  sufficient  alkali  in  the  charging-drum  A  after  the  stock-boiler 
has  been  filled  to  maintain  a  thorough  circulation  of  alkali  through  the  coil  B,  charging-drum  A,  pipe 
c',  stock-boiler  c,  and  pipe  into  coil  b,  during  which  time  the  valve  in  pipe  B^  may  be  closed,  the 
other  valves  all  open. 

"  After  the  paper-stock  boiler  c  has  been  sufficiently  treated,  it  is  intended  that  five-sixths  of  the 
alkali  in  use  during  this  process  shall  be  returned  to  the  alkali  charging-drum  A.  This  may  be  con- 
veniently effected  by  steam  admitted  from  the  steam  hot-water  drum  d,  which  is  similarly  heated  by 
coil  E,  with  similar  circulating-pipes  e''. 

"  It  is  intended  that  one-sixth  new  alkali-liquor  shall  be  added  to  it  to  form  a  fresh  charge  for  the 
next  operation. 

"If  weak  alkaline  solutions  are  employed,  the  entire  charge  of  alkali  used  may  be  discarded  after 
each  treatment,  and  a  fresh  charge  of  the  solution  admitted  to  the  charging-drum  from  a  suitable  reser- 


STRA  W. 


285 


voir  or  other  source,  not  represented  ;  but  in  either  case  the  temperature  is  maintained  in  the  charging- 

drum  by  means  of  the  coil  and  connections,  arranged  as  represented. 

"It  will  be  understood  that  the  alkali  is  conducted  from  the  charging-drum  a  to  the  stock-boiler  c 

through  pipe  c' ;  and  when  the  steam  is  admitted  to  drive  back  the  alkali,  the  valve  in  the  pipe  c"  is 

closed,  and  the  valve  in  the  lower  pipe     being  opened,  the  steam  from  the  hot-water  boiler  d,  being 

admitted  to  the  top  of  the  pulp-boil3r  c,  presses  downward  on  the  alkali  contained  in  the  interstices  of 

the  pulp  and  forces  it  down,  through  the  strainer  at  the  bottom  and  through  the  pipe  c',  into  the 

heating-coil  b  and  pipes  b'  and  B^,  into  alkali-charging  drum  A,  to  be  there  retained  while  the  pulp  is 

removed  and  all  is  made  ready  for  the  treatment  of  a  new  charge." 

* 

An  improved  boiler  for  the  same  process  was  patented  by  Mr.  Keen,  July  25th, 
1871.  It  is  represented  by  Fig.  121  and  the  following  description,  both  copied  from 
the  letters-patent : 


Fig.  121. 


"The  boiler  is  made  strong  and  capable  of  being  worked  at  any  desirable  pressure  to  accomplish 
the  object  of  thorough  cooking  or  disintegration,  and  may  be  termed  an  upright  rotary  boiler  revolving 
on  its  short  axis,  end  over  end. 

"The  following  is  a  description  of  what  I  consider  the  best  means  of  carrying  out  the  invention  : 
"The  drawing  (Fig.  121)  forms  a  part  of  this  specification,  and  represents  a  longitudinal  section. 
Referring  thereto,  A  is  the  general  interior  of  boiler ;  b  a 
bowl-screen  or  perforated  false  internal  bottom,  fitted 
securely  inside  of  one  end  of  boiler,  and  forms  a  drain- 
ing-screen  when  the  boiler  is  in  a  vertical  position,  c  is  a 
ring  of  pipe,  perforated  with  small  holes,  and  forms  a 
shower-pipe  inside  the  upper  end  of  boiler,  or  manhole  end,  ' 
when  the  boiler  is  set  in  vertical  position.  Said  shower- 
pipe  is  secured  to  inside  of  boiler  by  T-outlets,  communi- 
cating through  the  bends  R  to  pipes  and  d^,  and  passages 
m'  and  through  the  trunnions  and  e'  and  are 
screw-valves  commanding  the  communication  through  the 
pipes  and  D^.  f  is  the  manhole  bonnet  or  manhead  of 
boiler,  and  g'^  are  stationary  inlet  and  outlet-pipes  con- 
nected steam-tight  to  the  stufiing-boxes  l'  and  l'^  in  the 
trunnions,  h'  and  are  pipes  connecting  between  passage- 
ways and  and  the  lower  end,  or  that  end  of  the  boiler 
opposite  to  the  manhead  F.  They  are  connected  by  bends 
E  and  R,  and  communicate  with  the  space  s  under  the  false 
bottom  B.       and  i'^  are  valves  in  pipes      and  h'-'.    j  is  a 

large  blow-off  or  pulp-discharge  valve  connecting  with  inside  of  boiler  through  the  short  pipe  T,  which 
forms  a  passage  through  both  the  outside  shell  of  boiler  and  the  screen  b.  n  is  a  large  gear-wheel  fixed 
on  one  trunnion,  to  which  power  is  communicated  by  pinion  o  to  revolve  the  boiler  A.  p  is  a  pulley 
on  counter-shaft  Q,  driven  by  any  convenient  power,  not  represented. 

"The  boiler  A  is  charged  with  materials  for  paper-stock,  and  is  treated  with  steam,  water,  or 
liquid  chemicals,  gases,  or  air  admitted  to  or  forced  in  the  boiler  through  the  trunnion-passages  by 
pipes  G^  and  g'*,  leading  thereto,  and  the  pipes  d'  and  d'^,  and  and  h'^,  separately  or  together.  This 
may  be  done  either  while  the  boiler  is  revolving  or  standing  still.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  arrangement 
of  pipes  and  valves  that  the  stock  can  be  subjected  to  treatment  through  shower-pipe,  while  the  boiler 
is  in  a  vertical  position,  through  the  trunnion  k^,  by  opening  the  valve  communicating  with  the 
shower-pipe,  while  the  bottom-valve  i'  is  opened  to  passage  through  the  opposite  trunnion  k',  and  the 


286 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  RAGS. 


waste  liquids  or  washing  discharged  through  it.  By  the  arrangement  of  pipes  and  valves  a  great 
variety  of  manipulations  of  stock  can  be  practiced,  either  in  the  upright  or  revolving  condition  of  the 
boiler.  The  boiler  can  be  discharged  under  pressure  while  in  a  vertical  position  by  opening  the  large 
valve  J,  communicating  with  inside  of  boiler ;  or  the  steam  can  be  blown  out  through  the  shower-pipe 
c,  valve  e',  pipe  d\  trunnion  k\  and  outlet-pipe  [g^,  after  which  the  manhead  F  may  be  opened  and 
the  contents  discharged  while  the  boiler  is  reversed.  The  disciiarge-pipe  leading,  as  shown,  from  the 
extreme  bottom  of  the  concave  or  dish-like  perforated  basin  or  strainer  b,  allows  me  to  discharge  the 
pulp  completely  and  rapidly,  by  the  force  of  the  steam  when  desired.  The  double  connection 
h'  h'^  allows  the  current  to  be  reversed  momentarily  at  intervals  to  clear  the  strainer.  The  elongated 
form  of  my  boiler  induces  a  marked  difference  in  the  effect  as  distinguished  from  a  spherical  boiler 
similarly  revolved.  When,  as  usual,  the  boiler  is  only  partly  filled,  the  contents  tumble,  gather 
together,  and  tumble  again  ;  while  in  a  spherical  boiler  there  is  no  possible  tumbling,  but  only  a 
rubbing  around  on  the  spherical  recessed  interior.  The  annular  form  and  arrangement  of  the  sprinkler 
c,  extending  in  a  ring  around  the  seat  of  the  manhead  F,  keeps  it  out  of  the  way  of  the  ready  access, 
which  is  so  highly  important,  through  the  manhead,  and  yet  gives  an  effectual  distribution  of  the 
water  equally  on  all  sides  of  the  manhole  and  over  the  whole  mass  of  the  pulp." 

The  apparatus  which  was  at  work  in  Messrs.  T.  D.  Condit  &  Co.'s  mill  is  the 
one  represented  by  Fig.  120,  but  the  revolving  boiler  (Fig.  121)  was  put  in  the 
place  of  the  stationary  one  c  of  Fig.  120. 

It  had  not  been  working  very  long,  when  it  was  found  that  the  acid  extracts, 
made  from  straw  by  means  of  hot  water  and  steam,  dissolved  the  iron  of  the  digesting- 
boiler,  and  prevented  the  production  of  white  pulp.  This  experience,  as  well  as  the 
means  by  which  this  unexpected  difficulty  was  to  be  overcome,  and  the  solution  of 
the  iron  of  the  boiler  prevented,  are  described  in  a  patent  dated  October  3d,  1871, 
from  which  the  following  lines  and  Fig.  122  are  copied. 

"  The  ghavings,  chips,  or  cuttings  of  wood,  plants,  or  paper-stock  material  are  placed  in  a  strong, 
close  boiler,  preferably  a  rotary  boiler,  revolving  on  its  short  axis,  end  over  end,  of  form  as  described 
in  my  patent  of  July  25th,  1871,  No.  117,427.  I  have  discovered  that  treatment  of  these  materials 
with  steain  and  water,  without  alkali,  as  described  in  previous  patents  issued  to  me,  is  liable  to  develop 
acids,  which  attack  the  iron  of  the  boiler,  and  injure  both  it  and  the  paper-stock.  The  iron  chemi- 
cally dissolved  from  the  interior  of  the  boiler,  becoming  fixed  in  the  paper-stock  by  the  subsequent  use 
of  alkalies,  leaves  the  paper-stock  stained  or  dyed. 

"  My  present  invention  consists  in  so  modifying  the  treatment  as  to  avoid  this  evil.  I  have  satis- 
fied myself  that  the  preparation  of  crude  paper-stock  should  not  be  made  in  an  iron  boiler  with  pure 
water  or  steam,  if  said  stock  is  intended  to  be  subsequently  treated  for  white  paper,  unless  some  pro- 
vision is  made  to  preserve  the  boiler  from  corrosion  and  the  stock  from  the  impregnation  of  iron.  The 
more  perfect  the  disintegration  and  pulping  of  crude  materials  and  removal  of  interstitial  matter  by 
pure  water  or  steam,  the  more  porous  and  spongy  the  pulp  becomes,  and  the  greater  becomes  the 
necessity  for  guarding  against  its  impregnation  and  stain  from  iron. 

*'  My  first  mode  of  attaining  this  end  is  by  electrical  or  galvanic  means,  which  may  be  availed  of 
in  a  cheap  and  convenient  form  for  practical  and  permanent  use.  I  find  that  the  iron  of  the  boiler 
may  be  electrically  so  conditioned  as  to  prevent  the  action  of  acetic  acid  or  pyroligneous  acids,  tannic 
acids  or  any  other  acids  or  acidulated  extracts  or  spirits  liberated  during  the  treatment  of  paper-stock. 
Zinc,  or  zinc  and  tin,  or  other  positive  metals,  may  be  introduced  in  the  form  of  rings  encircling  the 
interior  of  the  boiler  at  each  end  and  at  one  or  more  intermediate  points.  I  prefer  to  use  it  in  the 
manner  herein  set  forth  and  illustrated  in  the  drawing,  Fig,  J 22,  hereto  attached, 


STB  AW. 


287 


"A  represents  the  boiler;  b  b'  b'  b',  the  rings  of  positive  electric  composition,  shown  by  cross-sec- 
tional view. 

"Other  methods  of  electrical  preservation  of  iron  boilers  from  action  of  acids  named,  and  the 
preservation  of  paper-stock  or  pulp  from  impregnation  or  iron  stain  by  said  electrical  protection  of 
iron  may  answer  nearly  as  well.  Iron  boilers  so  conditioned  I  propose  in  the  remainder  of  the  specifi- 
cation to  term  electrically  protected. 

"Other  means  are  available  for  working  of  my  invention,  which  may  be  termed  mechanical.  One 
of  the  cheapest  methods  of  mechanical  protection  is  by  plating  the  interior  of  the  boiler  with  tin  or 
any  metal  not  liable  to  be  affected  by  the  acids  generated  in  the  process  of  producing 
paper-stock  from  crude  materials.   This  is  not,  in  my  view,  as  reliable  as  the  other  mode.      Fig.  122. 
because  of  the  liability  of  small  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  iron  to  become  exposed  "x 


and  induce  mischief.  I  have  not  experimented  with  this  plan,  nor  with  an  obviously 
available  substitute — a  boiler  entirely  of  copper  or  other  non-corrodible  metal — but 
believe  that  my  improvement  in  this  treatment  may  be  realized  by  these  means,  though 
in  a  less  desirable  manner.  Either  of  these  plans  preserves  the  boiler  from  destruction 
by  acids,  and  leaves  the  paper-stock  or  pulp  in  a  pure  condition,  free  from  iron  stains  or 
rust,  and  in  the  best  condition  for  future  treatment  with  alkali  and  bleach  to  produce  a 
pure  white  paper-stock  at  the  lowest  cost,  and  can  be  cheaply  treated  subsequently  for 
white  paper-stock  or  pulp  by  any  of  the  present  or  other  suitable  methods.  There  are 
marked  advantages  attending  the  pulping  or  partial  pulping  of  crude  paper-stock  with- 
out alkalies,  but  the  considerable  time  of  treatment  required,  either  at  low  or  high  temperature,  to 
remove  the  interstitial  matter  to  produce  the  best  pulp  affords  a  prolonged  time  for  acid  action  on  the 
boiler,  and  a  thorough  charging  of  the  pores  of  the  pulp  with  tannate  or  acetate  of  iron,  which  cannot 
easily  be  washed  out  prior  to  the  alkaline  treatment  made  subsequently.  The  stock  or  pulp  so  satu- 
rated with  tannate  or  acetate  of  iron  is  stained  by  the  precipitation  of  the  iron  in  the  stock  during  its 
subsequent  treatment  with  alkali,  and  is  most  difficult  to  remove  from  the  pulp.  It  entails  a  tedious 
scouring  and  washing  process  to  even  partially  effect  it,  and  is  then  attended  with  serious  injury  to  the 
stock.  In  a  word,  no  crude  materials  or  plants,  intended  for  white  paper-stock  or  jiulp,  should  be 
treated  by  pure  water  or  steam  in  an  iron  boiler,  without  provisions  alluded  to  in  this  specification. 

"  I  have  found  that  with  the  provisions  alluded  to,  which  I  have  termed  electrically-protected 
boiler,  or  with  a  boiler  intei'ually  plated  or  coated,  or  composed  of  metal  or  material  not  affected  by 
acids  liberated  in  the  treatment  of  paper-stock  by  hot  water,  or  steam,  or  vapor,  a  good,  crude  paper- 
stock  or  pulp  can  be  produced  by  treatment  in  a  close  vessel,  with  steam  and  water,  from  straw,  cane, 
shavings  of  wood,  flax  tow,  hemp  tow,  manilla  hemp,  jute,  and  all  crude  materials  adapted  for  paper- 
stock.  The  stock  under  treatment  should  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  water.  To  obtain  the  best 
results,  during  the  boiling  and  steaming  all  the  interstitial  matter  liberated  by  this  treatment  may  be 
washed  out  by  percolation  in  a  vertical  boiler,  or  blown  out  at  bottom  of  boiler,  or  the  material  may  be 
dumped  out,  and  squeezed  or  washed  out  prior  to  boiling  said  pulp  in  alkali.  If  the  above  treatment 
is  made  in  the  manner  herein  described  and  in  the  apjmratus  set  forth,  forty  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  the 
interstitial  matter  may  be  removed  prior  to  the  alkaline  ti-eatment,  and  only  8  to  10  per  cent,  caustic 
alkali  in  solution  to  100  pounds  raw  material  will  be  required  for  the  production  of  a  pure  gray  pulp 
that  may  be  readily  and  cheaply  bleached. 

"  The  time  and  temperature  necessary  for  the  alkaline  treatment  depend  on  the  stock  under  treat- 
ment, and  will  vary  from  thirty  minutes  to  five  hours,  and  from  212  to  380  degrees  Fahrenheit,  green, 
succulent  stock  being  easily  reduced,  while  the  dry  and  seasoned  materials  require  more  time  and  in- 
creased temperature." 

The,  owners  of  the  patent  admit  that  this  electrical  protection  does  not  prevent 
the  iron  of  the  boiler  from  being  dissolved  by  the  acid  extract,  and  that  chemicals 
must  be  used  with  the  water. 


288 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  EAGS. 


We  have  been  informed  by  parties  who  have  seen  the  process  in  ojjeration  that 
waste  alkaline  liqnor,  which  has  previously  been  used  to  digest  a  lot  of  raw  material, 
such  as  straw,  wood,  or  esparto,  is  the  chemical  alluded  to.  We  believe  that  such  is 
the  case,  and  have  no  doubt  that  the  presence  of  this  or  any  other  alkali  wnll  prevent 
the  solution  of  iron,  because  the  acids  cannot  be  extracted  with  alkaline  liquids. 

It  seems  hereby  fairly  established  that  the  extraction  of  their  soluble  parts  from 
wood  or  straw,  by  means  of  water  and  steam  in  nude  iron  boilers,  is  impracticable. 

We  have  seen  samples  of  splendid  white  pulp,  which  had  been  made  from  straw 
and  esparto  by  this  process,  as  stated  to  us,  with  about  one-half  of  the  quantity  of 
soda  recommended  by  Mellier,  and  with  about  14  pounds  of  bleaching-powders  for 
100  pounds  of  paper.  Fifty  pounds  of  Avliite  paper  from  100  pounds  of  straw  was 
stated  to  be  the  usual  yield.  An  opportunity  of  verifying  these  statements  by  an 
insj^ection  of  the  operations  at  the  mill,  although  solicited,  was  not  granted  to  us. 

Mr.  Keen  has  lately  taken  out  another  patent,  dated  July  9th,  1872,  consisting 
principally  of  a  stationary  upright  boiler,  which,  as  we  are  informed,  is  not  yet  in 
practical  operation.  It  is  described  in  the  letters-patent  by  the  following  Figs.  123, 
124,  125,  and  specification: 

"Specification  describing  certain  Improvements  in  Apparatus  and  Process  for  producing  Paper- 
Pulp  and  Paper-Stock,  invented  by  Morris  L.  Keen,  of  Jersey  City,  Hudson  County,  New  Jersey. 

"  The  invention  is  applicable  to  the  preparation  of  crude  and  fine  paper-stock,  and  pulp  from 
chips  or  shavings  of  wood,  cane,  and  all  analogous  materials. 

"  The  following  is  a  detailed  description  of  what  I  consider  the  best  means  of  carrying  out  the 
invention. 

"  The  boiler  is  of  an  upright  form,  made  of  iron,  and  electrically  protected  from  action  of  inter- 
stitial matter  liberated  from  crude  materials  for  paper-stock  during  the  treatment  of  the  same  in  the 
boiler,  and  at  the  same  time  preserving  the  stock  from  iron  stain,  as  set  forth  in  my  patent  of  October 
3d,  1871,  No.  119,465. 

"  The  drawing  attached  to  this  specification  shows  fully  the  form  of  the  boiler,  and  the  mechanical 
appliances  connected  therewith. 

"Fig.  123  is  a  vertical  section  through  the  entire  work  at  and  near  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
boiler.  Fig.  124  is  a  central  section,  and  Fig.  125  a  view  from  below,  showing  one  of  the  important 
details  on  a  large  scale. 

"  Similar  letters  of  reference  indicate  like  parts  in  all  the  figures. 

"The  boiler  A  is  preferably  about  5  feet  in  diameter  and  16  feet  high,  domed  at  top  and  bottom, 
strong  enough  to  stand  a  working-pressure  of  200  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  b  represents  the  charging- 
hole  or  manhead  at  the  top  of  the  boiler.  J  is  a  discharge-valve,  where  the  pulp  is  blown  out  when 
ready,  c  is  the  conical  strainer  or  false  bottom,  which  acts  as  a  funnel  to  guide  the  stock  in  its 
passage  through  the  devil  d\  and  as  a  strainer  for  admitting  the  free  circulation  of  fluid  material,  at 
convenience,  during  any  stage  of  the  treatment,  and  for  passage  of  all  waste  and  washing  fluid  mate- 
rials, when  required,  said  fluids  passing  out  through  valve  i.  It  also  serves  for  the  free  admission  of 
upward  currents  of  steam  or  fluids  forced  in  through  valve  and  pipe  H  by  the  pipe  f'',  when  the  valves 
g'^  and  v  are  closed,  u  is  an  annular  pipe  ring  inserted  inside  of  the  boiler  near  its  top,  and  perforated 
with  small  holes  to  act  as  a  shower-pipe  for  admission  of  steam  or  fluids  for  washing  and  treating  the 
stock  at  different  stages  of  the  process.  Said  steam  and  fluids  are  forced  in  through  outside  pipe  u\ 
communicating  with  and  forming  part  of  the  same,  is  a  centrifugal  disintegrating  rubber,  with 
ridges      on  its  upper  face  (Fig.  124),  and  with  suction-screw  propelling-blades  inserted  inside  of  the 


STBAW. 


289 


bottom  of  same  to  draw  aud  force  the  materials  under  treatment  with  the  fluid  matter  up  the  hollow 
shaft  to  near  the  top  of  the  boiler,  i  is  a  drain-cock  or  valve  communicating  with  the  space  under 
the  false  bottom  c  to  drain  off  the  interstitial  and  wash-water  when  required ;  r>',  a  conical  devil  or 
hog,  with  centrifugal  rubber  disintegrator  attached,  firmly  mounted  on  the  end  of  hollow  driving- 
shaft  n\  on  the  inside  of  bottom  of  boiler,  which  may  be  driven  in  any  convenient  way.  n'  is  a  spew- 
pipe  shaft  on  which  the  conical  devil  is  set.  Said  hollow  shaft  has  outlets  at  t,  through  which  a 
complete  circulation  of  fluids  or  pulpy  materials  is  passed,  as  they  are  forced  up  through  the  shaft  by 
inside  steam-injection  pipe  f',  after  passing  through  the  conical  screen  c,  some  of  the  fluid  matter  being 
passed  downward  and  outward  through  the  valve  h  ;  thence  down  further  aud  inward  through  pipe  e, 
while  the  pulpy  matter  is  delivered  through  the  conical  devil  dS  as  marked  by  arrows.  The  whole  is 
then  passed  up,  under,  and  through  the  hollow  interior  of  the  disintegrating  rubber  by  propeller- 
screw  inside  of  same  into  the  hollow  shaft  n',  to  be  spewed  out  at  the  top  through  the  nozzles  t  t,  and 


Fig.  123.  Fig.  124. 


the  round  of  operations  repeated.  During  different  stages  of  the  process  this  operation  is  varied,  g' 
and  and  v  are  stop-valves  that  may  be  closed  at  the  time  of  discharging  the  boiler  of  its  pulp 
through  the  valve  J,  or  manipulated  to  assist  in  said  discharge.  H  is  a  valve  opening  passage  through 
pipe  E  from  under  false  bottom  to  space  under  d"  in  case  M,  to  admit  of  the  free  circulation  of  fluid 
matter  in  the  early  stages  of  digesting  the  crude  material ;  s,  a  sample-cock  to  test  the  condition  of 
stock  at  different  stages  of  process,  o  is  a  gear-wheel  to  drive  tlie  shaft  n'  ;  and  f^,  steam-injection 
pipes  to  create  a  current  of  fluid  and  pulpy  matter,  and  heat  the  same  in  its  passage.  As  all  the  pulpy 
matter  is  brought  in  direct  contact  with  the  live  steam  in  its  passage  through  either  the  hollow  pipe- 
shaft  or  the  outside  pipe  n'^,  it  is  thoroughly  cooked  and  digested,  m  is  the  external  case  of  conical 
devil  and  its  adjuncts,  k  is  the  bottom  cap  and  step  of  shaft  n\  l  is  the  conical  cup-section  or  shell 
of  devil,  commonly  called  the  cup  or  hopper,    p  is  a  lever  by  which  the  devil,  and  especially  its 


290 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


attached  centrifugal  disintegrator  d^,  is  adjusted  to  its  work,  and  raised  and  lowered  in  its  work  by 
changing  the  position  of  the  weight  p'.  It  is  self-acting,  to  yield  and  admit  of  the  passage  of  any  hard 
substances  that  might  choke  or  injure  the  devil,  or  the  rubber,  or  disintegrator,  r  is  a  steam-gauge, 
to  indicate  the  pressure  and  temperature  during  the  process.  Q  are  brackets,  to  support  the  boiler  in 
setting  the  same. 

"  The  especial  object  of  this  invention  is  the  treatment  of  crude  paper-stock  materials,  and  the 
reduction  of  the  same  to  a  pulp  with  water,  or  a  weak  alkaline  solvent,  or  other  equivalent  solvent,  as 
set  forth  in  my  patent,  dated  October  3d,  1871,  No.  119,464,  thereby  enabling  by  subsequent  treat- 
ment, as  washing,  the  removal  of  the  gummy  and  acid  interstitial  matter  to  any  desirable  point  as  to 
its  destined  use  in  the  manufacture  of  papers  of  fine  or  coarse  qualities.  If  the  stock  is  intended  for 
coarse  papers,  the  most  of  the  interstitial  matter  may  be  retained  and  coagulated,  as  set  forth  in  one  of 
my  former  patents.  If  intended  for  white  paper,  the  stock  may  be  thoroughly  washed  in  the  boiler 
prior  to  its  subsequent  treatment  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  of  given  strength  and  quantities,  and 
at  such  temperature  and  for  such  time  as  fully  specified  for  different  kinds  of  materials,  all  of  which 
are  fully  set  forth  in  former  patents  issued  to  me.  The  stock  or  pulp  can  now  be  discharged  by  blow- 
ing the  same  out  of  a  blow-cock  or  discharge-valve,  as  mentioned,  fixed  in  the  bottom  of  boiler,  or  the 
stock  may  be  blown  out  after  the  first  treatment  described,  for  the  liberation  «f  and  removal  of  the 
interstitial  matter.  The  crude  pulp  can  afterward  be  washed  by  any  suitable  apparatus  or  means,  and 
thoroughly  prepared  and  cleansed  for  the  second  treatment  of  boiling  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  of 
such  strength  and  quantity,  and  at  such  temperature  for  such  time  as  the  kind  of  stock  under  treat- 
ment requires  for  the  production  of  any  desired  quality  of  paper-stock  to  be  made,  either  into  fine 
grades  of  unbleached  or  bleached  paj^ers.  For  this  last-named  treatment  in  a  caustic  alkaline  solution, 
I  prefer  to  use  my  patent  boiler  revolving  on  its  short  axis,  as  set  forth  in  my  patent  issued  July  25th, 
1871,  No.  117,427." 

Considering  that  perfectly  good  straw-paper  Las  been  and  is  made  by  one  single 
operation  of  boiling  in  caustic  soda  and  subsequent  washing  and  bleaching,  it  seems 
that  the  previous  treatment  with  hot  water  is  not  indispensable,  and  we  must  suppose 
that  the  substances  which  Mr.  M.  L.  Keen  and  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson  wish  to 
extract  before  the  treatment  with  alkali,  have  heretofore  been  eliminated  by  the  sub- 
sequent washing  of  the  boiled  pulp. 

It  is,  however,  probable  and  natural  that  less  soda  should  be  required  for  the 
extraction  of  the  fibres  from  straw,  which  have  already  lost  a  part  of  their  foreign 
matters  by  previous  boiling  with  water,  than  is  necessary  for  the  unprepared  fresh 
material. 

Two  separate  boiling  operations,  instead  of  one,  must  be  carried  on  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  unfortunately  in  two  different  boilers,  one  of  which  must  be  constructed  of 
some  other  material  than  iron,  or  both  operations  may  be  carried  on  in  one  boiler,  if 
it  is  constructed  of  a  material  which  is  s^b\e  to  withstand  the  section  of  light  acids  as 
well  as  of  strong  alkalies. 

Provided  that  the  attempts  to  reduce  the  necessary  quantity  of  soda  by  these 
means  should  be  successful,  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  additional  machinery, 
labor,  and  fuel  required  therefor  would  not  lead  to  £|,n  additional  expense  equal  to  the 
saving  in  soda. 

228.  Washing  and  Bleaching. — The  operation  of  washing,  following  the  different 
methods  of  digestion  or  boiling,  described  in  the  foregoing  linps,  is  carried  on  in  the 


STB  AW. 


291 


same  manner  as  for  Mellier's  and  similar  systems,  and  has  been  discussed  under  that 
head.  Washing-engines  and  wet-machines  are  used  for  this  purpose  in  nearly  all 
modern  mills. 

All  that  has  been  said  about  bleaching  rags  might  be  repeated  here,  as  straw  is 
treated  upon  the  same  principles,  and  only  requires  a  larger  proportion  of  material, — 
from  15  to  25  pounds  of  bleaching  powders  and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  being  used  for  every  100  pounds  of  paper  made  from  straw  alone. 

For  paper  which  has  been  boiled  with  insufficient  quantities  of  soda,  a  larger 
proportion  of  bleach-solution  is  necessary.  It  may  be  given  as  a  rule  that,  every- 
thing else  being  equal,  that  which  is  saved  by  the  reduction  of  soda  ash  below  a 
certain  limit,  or  to  less  than  the  quantity  which  is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  incrusting 
matters,  is  lost  by  the  increased  use  of  bleaching  powders  and  the  poorer  quality 
of  the  paper. 

Several  inventors  have  tried  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  soda  and  the  temperature 
used  for  boiling,  and  to  make  up  for  imperfect  digestion  by  more  energetic  bleaching. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  straw-pulp  prepared  with  comparatively  small  quantities  of 
soda,  can  be  made  white  by  forced  bleaching,  but  the  incrusting  matters  are  then  not 
thoroughly  removed,  and  give  to  the  paper  the  characteristic  brittleness  and  stiffness 
which  remind  us  of  its  origin. 

A  surplus  of  free  chlorine  decomposes  the  cellulose  by  uniting  with  its  hydrogen 
and  perhaps  withdrawing  it  while  the  carbon  remains ;  the  fibres  thus  become  ca7'- 
bonized  or  burnt,  and  will  not  form  as  good  a  paper  as  might  be  obtained  at  the  same 
cost  by  a  better  digestion  of  the  raw  material. 

In  some  mills  steam  is  admitted  to  the  pulp  while  it  is  bleached  in  the  engine, 
and  a  slight  elevation  of  the  temperature  certainly  assists  the  chemical  action. 

In  many  cases  it  will  be  found  that  the  difficulty  experienced  in  bleaching  straw- 
pulp  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  alkali,  which  has  been  neither  neutralized  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  nor  thoroughly  washed  out. 

The  bleach  solution  which  escapes  from  the  drainers  is,  if  sulphuric  acid  has  been 
used,  loaded  with  hydrochloric  acid  (see  articles  34  to  40),  and  it  is  therefore  not 
advisable  to  let  it  remain  for  a  long  time  in  contact  with  the  pulp,  nor  to  use  it  for 
the  preparation  of  fresh  solutions.  It  is  best,  not  only  to  let  it  drain  off  as  quickly  as 
possible,  but  also  to  empty  the  bleacher  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  thus  to 
soak  and  wash  the  white  pulp  immediately  in  the  drainers.  Hydrochloric  acid  turns 
the  pulp  a  yellow  gray ;  we  have  seen  stuff,  which  had  been  emptied  from  the 
bleacher  as  white  as  snow,  turn  yellow-gray  in  the  drainers,  because  the  hydrochloric 
acid  had  not  been  washed  out  with  clear  water. 

The  chlorine,  remaining  in  the  liquid  which  escapes  from  the  drainers,  may  be 
used  up  by  being  added  directly  to  the  gray  pulp  in  the  washing-engine  as  a  prelimi- 
nary bleacher,  and  then  washed  out  again.  The  more  the  waste  bleach-liquor  is 
manipulated  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  the  sooner  will  all  its  chlorine  be 


292 


SUBSTITUTES  FOE  BAGS. 


transformed  into  hydrochloric  acid ;  if  it  is  to  be  used  at  all,  it  should  be  done  as 
quickly  as  possible, 

229.  Bleaching  in  Rotaries. — In  some  mills  rotary  boilers,  similar  to  the  one  repre- 
sented by  Figs.  16  and  17,  are  used  instead  of  bleaching-engines.  The  straw-pulj), 
bleach-solution,  and  vitriol,  having  been  introduced  through  the  manhole,  the  cover 
is  put  on,  and  the  boiler  set  in  motion.  Steam  and  water  may  be  admitted  through 
pipes  in  the  journals. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  acid  of  the  solution  would  dissolve  the  iron  of 
the  boilers,  and  make  their  use  impossible,  but  the  inner  surface  soon  becomes  covered 
with  a  jirotecting  crust,  which  separates  the  liquid  from  the  iron.  The  rotary  is 
usually  set  in  motion  for  the  better  discharge  of  the  pulp,  and  the  portion  of  the  out- 
side surface  near  the  manhole  over  which  the  latter  must  flow,  will  become  rusted 
from  contact  with  the  chlorine  or  acid ;  the  inside  coating  may  also  peel  off,  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  such  bleaching  boilers  are  a  source  of  impurities,  although  not  of 
a  sufficient  amount  to  do  serious  damage. 

The  principal  argument  in  favor  of  iron  rotary  bleachers  is  that  the  chlorine  gas 
cannot  escape  into  the  air,  but  will  all  be  absorbed.  This  one  good  quality  is,  how- 
ever, more  than  offset  by  the  following  bad  ones. 

The  progress  of  the  operation  cannot  be  seen  and  controlled,  and  the  influence 
of  light  is  lost. 

The  friction  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  rotary — objectionable  in  all  cases — 
is  much  more  so  in  this  one,  as  the  straw  is  already  reduced  to  fibres.  Although  the 
boiler  may  move  very  slowly,  yet  it  turns,  and,  if  allowed  to  revolve  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  the  fibres  are  sometimes  rolled  into  little  balls,  which  give  to 
the  pulp  the  appearance  of  fish  eggs.  It  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
straighten  the  fibres  in  these  balls  again,  and  they  obstruct  the  screens  and  cause 
spots  in  the  paper.  We  have  seen  many  a  boiler-charge  emptied  in  this  form, 
because  it  had  been  imperfectly  boiled,  was  consequently  difficult  to  bleach,  and  had 
to  remain  an  unusually  long  time  in  the  bleaching  rotary. 

230.  The  Hydrostatic  Process,  patented  1866,  is  based  on  the  theory  that  gray 
pulp,  mixed  in  a  revolving  boiler  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  may  be  bleached 
with  a  smaller  amount  of  chemicals,  and  more  effectually  if  it  is  subjected  to  a  strong 
pressure ;  for  instance,  of  100  jDounds  per  square  inch.  The  patentees  promise  a 
saving  of  soda  ash  in  the  previous  operation  of  boiling,  and  recommend  the  digesting 
of  straw  with  less  than  50  pounds  of  steam-pressure. 

It  appears  natural  that  the  bleach  solution,  on  having  been  forced  into  the  inner- 
most recesses  of  the  pulp  by  the  hydrostatic  pressure,  should  find  a  better  opportunity 
to  exercise  its  influence. 

The  half-stuff,  which  has  been  obtained  from  straw  by  digestion  with  a  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  soda,  is  well  washed  first,  and  then  mixed  with  a  fresh 
solution  of  bleaching  powders  in  an  iron  rotary.  The  manhole  having  been  closed 
and  the  boiler  started,  the  hydrostatic  pressure  is  put  on  by  forcing  waste  bleach- 


STB  AW. 


293 


liquor,  which  has  been  drained  from  a  previous  lot  of  bleached  pulp,  into  it  by  means 
of  a  strong  pump,  until  about  100  pounds  are  indicated  on  the  steam-pressure  gauge. 
After  it  has  been  kept  at  that  pressure  for  some  time,  usually  about  half  an  hour,  the 
boiler  is  emptied,  and  the  pulp  treated  as  usual. 

In  discussing  this  process  we  can  only  repeat  what  has  been  previously  said 
about  bleaching  in  votaries  and  about  forced  bleaching,  all  of  which  applies  here. 

The  hydrostatic  process  is  in  operation  at  the  Niagara  Falls  Paper  Company's 
and  the  Kochester  Paper  Company's  mills,  the  proprietors  of  which  own  the  patent, 
and  also  at  several  other  mills. 

231.  Ozone  Bleaching. — John  Campbell  has  received  several  patents  for  a  process 
of  bleaching  which  he  calls  the  ozone  bleaching  process.  The  pulp  is  mixed  with  a 
weak  solution  of  bleaching  powders  in  an  ordinary  engine,  and  one  or  two  fan-blow- 
ers force  a  current  of  atmospheric  air  into  it  near  the  bottom.  Either  chlorine  gas 
generated  in  a  retort,  or  a  bleach-solution  composed  of  various  chemicals,  such  as 
chlorine,  bromine,  oxalic  acid,  and  porous  alumina,  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  air 
on  its  passage  to  the  engine. 

It  is  claimed  that  either  ozone  is  thereby  created,  or  that  the  liquor  is  vaporized 
by  the  current  of  air,  and  reaches  the  engine  in  a  finely-divided  state,  and  that  pulp 
can  thus  be  bleached  much  cheaper  than  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Ozone  is  not  produced  simply  by  the  contact  of  the  air  with  gas  or  solutions  of 
chemicals,  be  the  former  propelled  by  a  fan  or  otherwise  ;  strong  chemical  or  electrical 
action  is  necessary  to  transform  the  oxygen  of  the  air  into  ozone  (see  article  35).  It 
may  be  that  the  blast  of  air  or  gas  agitates  the  pulp  mechanically,  and  thereby  assists 
the  bleaching,  but  we  are  not  aware  that  the  invention  has  been  very  successful,  or 
that  it  has  found  extensive  application. 

C.  Treatment  of  Straw- Pulp  in  the  Beaters  and  on  the  Pape7'-3Iachine. — 

Conclusions. 

232.  Beating. — The  bleached  straw-pulp  is,  as  has  been  before  said,  already 
divided  into  fibres,  and  does  not  require  any  further  cutting  or  reduction. 

The  author  has  prepared  straw-pulp  during  several  years  in  an  ordinary  engine, 
provided  with  a  smooth  piece  of  cast  iron  as  a  bed-plate.  The  pulp  was  only  mixed 
in  this  engine,  and  finished  by  passing  through  a  Kingsland  engine  on  its  way  to  the 
machine. 

A  slight  brushing,  such  as  is  given  by  a  good  engineer  in  an  ordinary  beater,  or 
in  Kingsland's  or  Jordan  &  Eustice's  engine,  is  all  that  is  necessay. 

233.  Paper-Machines. — The  paper-machines  on  which  straw-paper  is  made  are 
constructed  like  those  used  for  rag-paper,  with  but  one  exception: 

If  metal,  and  especially  iron,  rolls  are  used  for  the  first  or  wet-press,  the  wet 
sheet  of  straw-paper  adheres  to  the  upper  roll  with  great  tenacity,  remaining  on  its 
surface  until  stopped  by  the  doctor,  instead  of  following  the  wet-felt,  and  causing  fre- 


294 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  RAGS. 


quent  breaks.  Straw  which  has  been  imperfectly  boiled  has  this  quality  in  a  higher 
degree  than  good  pulp,  probably  because  the  resinous  and  gummy  matters  have  not 
been  thoroughly  eliminated.  If  this  be  the  only  cause,  or  if  the  natural  smoothness 
of  straw-paper  produces  a  strong  adhesion  in  contact  with  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
roll,  we  must  be  prepared  to  meet  the  trouble. 

After  rolls  of  almost  every  possible  material  had  been  tried,  it  was  found  that 
those  of  tough,  close-grained  wood  answered  best.  Maple  and  gum  woods  are  fre- 
quently used,  but  trees,  from  which  a  roll  of  sufficient  diameter,  perfectly  sound, 
without  crack  or  knot,  can  be  cut,  are  rather  scarce.  The  author  succeeded  best 
with  two  rolls  of  gum  wood  of  25  inches  diameter,  both  of  which  had  been  obtained 
from  one  tree.  If  a  hole,  knot,  or  other  unevenness  is  found  on  the  roll,  it  must  be 
cut  out  square,  and  a  block  of  exactly  the  same  wood  driven  into  it,  tightly  and  in 
such  position  that  its  grain  runs  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  roll. 

In  some  mills  these  rolls  are  covered  with  jackets  of  alpaca  cloth,  cut  as  wide  as 
the  roll,  and  a  little  longer  than  the  circumference. 

One  end  is  laid  on  top  of  the  roll,  and  allowed  to  turn  with  it,  so  that  the  whole 
jacket  will  be  wound  around  it ;  the  overlapping  loose  end  is  then  fastened  to  the 
lower  part  with  two  or  three  stitches  by  means  of  a  needle  and  thread. 

The  pores  of  this  cloth  soon  fill  up,  the  jackets  must  be  frequently  washed 
and  exchanged,  and  we  prefer  therefore  a  naked  wooden  roll,  if  a  good  one  can  be 
procured.  Some  arrangement,  by  which  the  wood  can  be  perpetually  washed  and 
cleaned,  must  be  applied  to  such  a  roll.  The  author  has  used  for  this  purpose  a 
sound  3-inch  plank,  about  8  to  10  inches  high,  which  was  fastened  and  pressed 
against  the  roll  like  the  guard-board  of  a  couch-roll,  and  a  channel,  about  1  inch 
deep  and  1  inch  wide,  was  planed  all  along  through  the  middle  of  the  3-inch  side, 
which  touched  the  roll.  The  ends  of  this  channel  were  plugged,  so  that  the  open 
part  extended  only  as  far  as  the  wet  sheet.  A  hole  was  bored  upwards  into  the  wood 
at  each  end  of  this  open  channel,  and  met  by  a  ^  inch  pij)e  entering  from  the  side  of 
the  board  facing  the  wire.  The  water  was  introduced  through  the  pipe  near  the 
front  side,  wetting  the  roll  while  passing  through  the  channel,  and  left  through  the 
pipe  at  the  other  end.  It  is  important  that  the  board  should  fit  close  on  the  roll,  so 
that  none  of  the  water  can  escape  sideways  from  the  channel.  If  it  should  leak  out 
in  any  point  the  paper  would  be  wetter  and  consequently  weaker  there  than  anywhere 
else,  and  perhaps  break  on  the  passage  to  the  end  of  the  machine.  Wood  can  hardly 
be  fitted  tight  enough  on  wood ;  the  board  is  therefore  covered  with  felt  like  the 
coucher-guard  ;  the  felt  being  bent  into  the  channel  and  tacked  to  it. 

Instead  of  this  arrangement,  two  guard  or  doctor-boards  may  be  used,  the  first 
one  to  catch  the  broken  paper,  and  the  second  one  to  hold  and  spread  across  the  roll 
a  solution  of  soap,  which  is  constantly  replenished  from  a  reservoir. 

After  a  wooden  roll  has  been  running  for  some  time,  it  becomes  slimy  ;  the  paper 
begins  to  stick  again,  and  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  renew  the  surfiice  by  removing 
from  it  as  thin  a  crust  as  possible. 


STRAW. 


295 


This  can  be  done  by  holding  a  scraper  formed  like  a  large  plane-bit  against  the 
roll  while  it  is  running;  or  the  human  hands  may  be  rej)laced  by  a  cross-head,  which 
carries  the  plane-bit.  An  iron  frame  is  for  this  purpose  fastened  to  the  pressroll- 
stands  at  both  sides,  stretching  across  the  machine  on  the  side  of  the  roll  which  faces 
the  wire,  and  upon  it  travels  the  cross-head,  moved  along  the  roll  by  a  sA'ew  and 
hand-wheel.  To  allow  the  roll  to  be  full  in  the  middle,  the  screw  may  be  somewhat 
sprung  out. 

If  no  mechanical  arrangement  like  the  latter  is  attached  to  the  machine  the 
wooden  roll  will  become  uneven  from  being  repeatedly  scraped  by  hand,  and  the 
paper,  remaining  wet  and  weak  in  the  hollow  places,  will  break  frequently  on  its 
subsequent  journey.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  two  rolls  on  hand,  one  of 
which  may  be  turned  off  while  the  other  is  at  work. 

If  the  mill  is  not  supplied  with  a  lathe,  a  very  simple  substitute  may  be  pro- 
vided, wherewith  the  wooden  rolls  can  be  turned  or  rather  planed. 

A  frame  is  constructed  for  this  purpose,  on  which  one  of  the  rolls  may  be  re- 
volved in  bearings  by  means  of  a  pulley,  keyed  on  one  of  the  collars  adjoining  the 
journals,  and  driven  from  the  line  shafting.  A  jack-plane  is  placed  under  a  right 
angle  across  the  roll,  supported  by  two  upright  boards,  which  are  bolted  to  the  posts 
at  the  ends  of  the  long  sides  of  the  frame,  and  which  can  be  raised  and  lowered  as 
may  be  desired.  These  boards  should  be  set  so  that  the  turning  roll  will  be  scraped 
by  the  plane,  while  the  latter  is  shifted  by  hand  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The 
upper  edges  of  the  boards  on  which  the  plane  is  moved  determine  the  form  of  the 
roll,  and  must  therefore  be  perfectly  true,  or  rather  a  trifle  high  in  the  middle. 

We  have  also  seen  hard  rubber  rolls  used  for  straw-paper  on  the  first  press,  but 
they  are  not  generally  adopted  for  this  purpose. 

The  paper,  after  leaving  the  wet-felt,  is  substantial  enough  to  pass  the  ordinary 
second  press  without  difficulty. 

Straw  paper,  although  sometimes  hard  and  stiff  when  dry,  is  weak  and  flimsy 
while  on  the  machine;  it  requires  more  attention,  and  breaks  more  frequently  than 
rag-paper,  especially  if  the  details  just  described  are  not  attended  to. 

Straw  and  other  vegetable  substances,  which  have  to  be  prepared  by  the  aid  of 
large  quantities  of  chemicals,  are  more  destructive  upon  wires  and  felts  than  rags, 
probably  because  the  acids  are  not  always  as  well  washed  out  as  they  should  be ;  but 
this  loss  is  compensated  for  by  the  small  amount  of  power  required  for  their  prepara- 
tion as  compared  with  rags. 

234.  Conclusions. — The  straw-fibre  has  qualities  in  which  cotton,  rags,  or  im- 
perfections are  deficient,  and  it  forms  a  harder  or  stiffer  paper  than  either  of  them. 
Neither  one  alone  can  produce  as  good  a  quality  as  mixtures  of  straw  and  rags,  straw 
and  imperfections,  or  of  all  three  of  these  materials.  Although  good  paper  can  be 
and  is  made  from  straw  alone,  mixtures  are  preferable. 

In  summing  up  the  results,  which  have  so  far  been  obtained  in  this  branch  of 
the  manufacture  of  paper,  we  find  that  the  quality  of  the  straw-paper,  made  by  some 


296 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


of  our  mills,  leaves  very  little  to  be  desired,  and  we  believe  that  our  future  eiForts 
should  be  more  especially  directed  towards  the  reduction  of  its  cost. 

If  the  straw  has  been  properly  digested,  so  that  pure  fibres  are  obtained,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  bleaching  it,  and  we  prefer,  to  all  patent  bleaching  processes 
known  to  us,  the  old  way  of  bleaching  in  the  engine,  as  practiced  for  rags,  with  such 
modifications  as  have  been  suggested  on  the  previous  pages. 

Abundance  of  soda  will  secure  good  straw-paper,  whichever  system  of  boiling 
may  be  adopted,  and  if  we  are  forced,  for  the  sake  of  economy,  to  use  the  smallest 
possible  quantities  of  it,  which  may  dissolve  all  extraneous  matters  (not  fibres),  we 
risk  at  the  same  time  imperfect  digestion  and  consequent  failure. 

Compared  with  these  difficulties,  it  seems  so  natural  to  use  plenty  of  soda  in  one 
short  operation  of  boiling,  and  to  recover  it  by  evaporation,  that  we  are  at  a  loss  to 
understand  why  it  is  not  more  frequently  practiced  in  this  country.  We  have  no 
doubt  that  it  will  pay  almost  anywhere  to  evaporate  very  concentrated  solutions ;  but 
near  to  the  coal-mines  even  weaker  ones  would  probably  give  a  profitable  return. 

We  would  advise  the  location  of  mills  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  straw 
and  similar  vegetable  substances  only,  where  both  the  raw  material  and  fuel  are 
cheap,  to  construct  the  digesters  in  any  way,  which  insures  perfect  boiling  with  little 
or  no  motion  of  the  pulp,  and,  with  as  small  a  volume  of  solution  as  possible,  to 
recover  the  alkalies  by  evaporation,  and  to  use  them  again  mixed  with  fresh  soda. 
(For  particulars  as  to  this  evaporating  process,  we  refer  to  Section  VI  of  this 
chapter.) 

This  opinion  is  based  on  the  present  average  prices  of  soda  and  coal,  but  would 
have  to  be  modified  if  soda  should  in  the  future  be  obtained  at  considerably  lower 
rates  or  if  coal  should  become  dearer. 

Straw  has  the  advantage  over  many  other  substitutes ;  for  instance,  over  wood 
and  esparto ;  that  new  crops  of  it  are  not  only  furnished  by  the  soil  every  year,  but 
that  the  quantity  raised  must  increase  with  the  demand  for  grain  for  our  ever  grow- 
ing population.  It  may  therefore  be  safely  predicted  that  it  will  retain  its  place 
among  the  raw  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  while  others  may  be  aban- 
doned as  soon  as  their  present  supply  is  exhausted.  < 

Although  the  author  has  been  compelled  to  give  a  rather  unfavorable  opinion  on 
several  new  inventions  and  processes,  he  considers  the  manufacture  of  straw-paper  in 
its  present  state  susceptible  of  many  improvements,  and  hopes  that  the  inventors  and 
pioneers,  who  venture  their  time  and  money  in  the  endeavor  to  discover  them,  will 
be  encouraged  and  rewarded  in  a  more  substantial  form  than  by  the  consciousness 
only  of  having  rendered  a  service  to  mankind. 


ESPABTO  GBASS. 


297 


SECTION  V. 
Esparto  Grass. 

235.  Its  Sources  and  Growth. — Esparto  or  Spanish  grass  {Stipa  tenacissima  or 
Machrochloa  tenacissima)  is  a  spontaneous  product  of  the  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  of 
Eastern  Spain  and  Northern  Africa,  where  it  has  been  for  centuries  worked  into 
baskets,  matting,  and  similar  wares,  like  our  Av'illows.  The  lands  most  favorable  to 
its  growth  are  found  near  the  sea-coast,  at  moderate  altitudes,  exposed  to  the  sun, 
and  dry. 

It  is,  however,  not  harvested  by  mowing,  as  the  name  "  Spanish  grass  "  would 
imply,  but  pulled  from  cylindrical  stems  called  atochon,  of  which  it  forms  the  leaves. 
These  stems  are  cylindrical,  without  knots,  but  covered  with  short  hair,  which  makes 
them  rough  to  the  downward  touch,  and  growing  in  root-clusters  of  from  2  to  10 
feet  in  circumference. 

If  raised  from  seed,  the  stems  require  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years'  growth  before 
they  produce  annual  harvests  of  esparto,  and  in  the  earlier  years  of  their  existence 
they  are  so  tender  that  they  may  serve  as  food  for  cattle ;  they  become  more  solid 
with  age,  probably  through  gradual  formation  of  cellulose,  and  sometimes  live  for 
sixty  years. 

The  leaves,  or  esparto,  grow  to  a  length  of  from  G  inches  to  3  feet,  and  are  pulled 
from  the  stems  by  hand ;  but  this  should  only  be  done  in  dry  weather,  between  July 
and  October,  as  the  una  or  "nail" — the  point  where  the  leaves  meet  the  stem — be- 
comes so  tenacious  in  wet  weather,  that  the  esparto  will  not  separate  from  the  atocha, 
and  often  results  in  tearing  up  the  whole  plant.  This  is  not  only  a  loss  to  the  pro- 
prietors, but  the  roots,  being  of  no  value  to  the  paper-maker,  injure  the  quality  of  the 
whole  lot  if  they  are  not  removed. 

The  short  and  sometimes  discolored  esparto  from  the  coast  is,  from  its  fineness 
and  tenacity,  the  first  favorite  in  delicate  manufacture,  but  the  long,  handsome,  gold- 
colored  esparto  from  the  interior  is  a  strong  competitor  even  for  delicate  uses,  and 
commands  a  higher  price  for  other  purposes.  The  name  given  to  this  quality  is  gar- 
billo  (sieve) ;  the  sieves  for  cleaning  grain  being  made  from  it. 

The  leaves  are  rather  flat  during  their  growth,  but  become  dry  and  closed  when 
they  ripen,  and  acquire  the  even,  rush-like  appearance  of  the  esparto  furnished  by 
the  trade. 

236.  Treatment  in  the  Mill. — Three  grades  or  qualities  of  esparto  are  sold  to  the 
paper  manufacturer,  all  of  which  must  be  cleaned  and  sorted  by  hand  before  they 

38 


298 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  EAGS. 


are  fit  to  be  made  into  pulp.  This  is  done  on  such  tables  as  are  used  for  sorting 
rags ;  roots  and  flowers  are  there  cut  off  and  the  weeds  taken  out. 

As  may  be  judged  from  its  similar  chemical  composition  (see  article  205),  esparto 
grass  is  treated  on  exactly  the  same  principles  as  straw ;  it  is  boiled  with  caustic  soda, 
washed,  and  bleached  with  chlorine  solution.  All  that  has  been  said  about  these 
operations  in  the  section  on  straw  might  be  repeated  here,  but  it  will  answer  as  well 
to  state  the  points  only  in  which  the  treatment  must  be  changed  to  suit  the  special 
qualities  of  the  esparto. 

Esparto  is  much  heavier  than  straw,  and  requires  no  breaking  down  or  cutting, 
in  order  to  fill  a  boiler  to  its  utmost  capacity.  It  is  therefore  used  in  the  dry  state 
and  of  full  length,  as  it  comes  from  the  sorting-room. 

The  motion  of  rotary  boilers  is,  for  reasons  stated,  objectionable  for  straw,  but 
still  more  so  for  esparto,  as  its  fibres  curl  up  easier,  forming  those  little  fish-egg-like 
balls,  which  are  a  source  of  trouble  to  many  paper-makers. 

It  is  therefore  frequently  boiled  in  so-called  vomiting  tubs,  constructed  on  the 
same  principle  as  those  described  and  represented  in  Fig.  118. 

Solutions  of  caustic  soda  are  prepared  for  the  digestion  of  esparto  in  precisely 
the  same  manner  as  for  straw,  but  the  proportion  of  soda  ash  used  for  the  former 
may,  according  to  the  best  information  which  we  could  obtain,  be  somewhat  smaller 
— perhaps  as  much  as  one-third  less.  We  say  "  j^erhaps,"  because,  with  esparto  as 
well  as  with  stra}V,  this  depends  to  some  extent  u|)on  the  purity  and  quality  of  the 
raw  material  and  upon  the  way  in  which  the  operations  are  conducted. 

Esparto  contains  nearly  10  per  cent,  more  fibres  or  cellulose  than  straw,  and 
must  necessarily  produce  more  paper.  The  statements  as  to  its  yield  vary  from  40 
to  50  per  cent.,  but  we  are  rather  inclined  to  put  it  nearer  to  the  smaller  figure. 

In  order  to  produce  a  good  quality  of  paper,  esparto,  like  straw,  must  be  digested, 
so  that  its  fibres  will  be  freed  from  all  foreign  or  incrusting  matters ;  but  the  opera- 
tion cannot  be  conducted  with  such  accuracy  that  the  56  per  cent,  of  cellulose  which 
it  contains  will  be  fully  obtained,  and  additional  losses  must  be  suffered  by  the  sub- 
sequent operations  of  washing  and  bleaching,  and  finally  on  the  paper-machine. 

Esparto  fibres,  being  tougher  than  those  from  straw  and  even  from  soft  rags, 
are  consequently  more  valuable,  and  enter  largely  into  book  and  writing  paper. 

The  recovery  of  soda  ash  by  evaporation  is  more  generally  practiced  in  England 
than  in  the  United  States,  and  makes  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  esparto  more 
economical. 

237.  Supply. — When  esparto  was,  about  the  year  1860,  first  used  on  a  large 
scale  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  it  could  be  drawn  from  the  accumulated  growth 
of  centuries,  and  its  supply  seemed  inexhaustible,  but  the  increased  demand,  rising 
to  140,000  tons  in  1871,  and  the  consequently  much  higher  prices  paid  for  it,  caused 
forced  croj^jjing,  and  in  many  cases  extermination  of  the  plant  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  yearly  decrease  of  its  production  amounts  at  present  to  from  2  to  7  per  cent.,  and 
in  some  localities  even  to  10  per  cent. 


ESPABTO  GBASS. 


299 


It  is  doubtful  whether  esparto  can  be  cultivated  with  profit  anywhere,  except 
where  it  grows  spontaneously,  but,  even  if  this  question  should  be  decided  favorably, 
and  it  should  form  in  future  times  one  of  our  staple  crops,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years 
will  elapse  before  any  return  will  be  obtained  from  the  seeds. 

The  supply  is  meanwhile  decreasing,  and  if  the  American  paper-makers  should 
enter  the  market  to  compete  for  it  with  the  Europeans,  they  would  thereby  directly 
contribute  to  raise  its  price,  and  also  indirectly  the  price  of  European  rags.  England 
manufactures  the  soda  ash  and  bleaching  powders,  the  cost  of  which  forms  the  heaviest 
item  in  the  production  of  paper  from  esparto  and  other  vegetable  fibres,  and,  being 
destitute  of  an  abundant  supply  of  vegetable  fibres  at  home,  cannot  afford  to  give  up 
esparto. 

As  long  as  the  American  paper  trade  will  be  dependent  on  England  for  its  soda 
and  bleaching  powders,  it  should  content  itself  with  drawing  from  Europe  rags  only, 
and  endeavor  to  find  among  the  products  of  this  vast  continent  the  additional  raw 
material  for  its  paper.  But  why  does  it  not  arise  to  a  full  appreciation  of  the  impor- 
tance of  an  American  supply  of  soda  and  of  bleaching  powders?  It  is  full  time  that 
it  had  done  so. 


300 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


SECTION  VL 
Wood. 

238.  The  Works  of  the  American  Wood-Paper  Company. — Paper  was  made  from 
wood  as  early  as  from  straw,  but  only  on  a  small  scale  until  the  works  of  the  Ameri- 
can Wood-Paper  Company  had  been  erected. 

Charles  Watt  and  Hugh  Burgess  received  a  patent  of  invention  in  England, 
August  19th,  1853,  and  in  the  United  States,  July  18th,  1854,  in  which  they  claim: 

"The  pulping  and  disintegrating  of  shavings  of  wood  and  other  similar  vegetable  matter  for 
making  paper,  by  treating  them  with  caustic  alkali,  chlorine,  simple  or  its  compounds  with  oxygen  and 
alkali,  in  the  order  substantially  as  described." 

The  process  descril^ed  in  the  specifications  has  been  much  improved  upon,  but 
we  mention  the  claim  because  it  has  played  an  important  part  in  the  lawsuits  of  the 
company. 

Mr.  Hugh  Burgess,  one  of  the  patentees,  is  the  manager  of  the  American  Wood- 
Paper  Company's  works,  at  Royer's  Ford,  Pa.,  where  5  tons  of  wood-paper  and  pulp 
are  made  every  day. 

The  new  works  of  the  same  company  at  Mariayunk,  Philadelphia,  are  of  a 
capacity  of  15  tons  of  white  wood-pulp  per  day ;  they  are  situated  between  the 
Schuylkill  River  and  canal,  flanked  by  railroads  on  both  sides,  and  driven  by  a 
water-power  rented  from  the  canal  company.  They  were  built  in  1865,  at  a  cost  of 
over  $500,000,  and  are  leased  to  Messrs.  Jessup  &  Moore  and  Martin  Nixon,  whose 
mills  work  up  the  pulp  on  nine  paper-machines,  after  it  has  been  previously  mixed 
with  rags  in  beaters. 

239.  Treatment  of  the  Wood. — The  wood,  mostly  poplar,  is  brought  to  the  works 
as  cord-wood  of  5  feet  lengths.  The  bark  having  been  stripped  off  by  hand,  it 
is  cut  into  slices  of  about  i  inch  thickness  by  a  cutter,  or  rather  chopper — a  machine 
looking  like  a  feed-cutter  on  a  large  scale.  Four  steel  knives,  from  8  to  10  inches 
wide  and  from  12  to  15  inches  long,  are  fastened  in  a  slightly  inclined  position,  to  a 
solid  cast-iron  disk  of  about  5  to  7  feet  diameter,  which  revolves  with  a  high  speed, 
chopping  the  wood,  which  is  fed  to  them  through  a  trough,  into  thin  slices,  across 
the  grain.  This  trough  must  be  large  enough  for  the  reception  of  the  logs,  usually 
from  10  to  12  inches  wide,  and  it  is  set  in  such  a  position  that  the  logs  slide  down 
towards  the  disk.  This  slanting  position  only  assists  the  movement  of  the  logs,  while 
a  piston,  which  is  propelled  by  a  rack,  pushes  them  steadily  forward,  until  they  are 


WOOD. 


301 


entirely  cut  up.  The  piston  or  pusher  then  returns  to  its  original  position,  fresh 
wood  is  put  into  the  trough,  and  the  operation  repeated. 

It  has  been  stated  to  us,  that  with  one  of  these  cutters,  40  cords  of  wood  may  be 
chopped  up  in  a  day.  The  works  at  Manayunk  are  supplied  with  two  of  them,  situ- 
ated so  that  the  slices  fall  directly  into  boxes  fastened  on  trucks,  which  are  pushed 
to  an  elevator,  as  soon  as  they  are  filled,  and  hoisted  up  two  stories  to  the  floor  from 
which  the  boilers  are  filled. 

These  boilers  are  upright  cylinders,  of  about  5  feet  diameter,  and  about  IG  feet 
height,  with  serai-spherical  ends,  provided  inside  with  straight  perforated  diaphragms, 
between  which  the  chips  from  one  cord  of  wood  are  confined.  Solutions  of  caustic 
soda,  testing  12  degrees  on  Baume's  hydrometer,  are  introduced  with  them,  and  fires 
are  started  in  furnaces  underneath.  (The  boilers  at  Royer's  Ford  are  heated  by 
steam,  circulating  through  a  jacket  which  covers  its  bottom  and  sides.)  When,  after 
six  hours'  boiling,  the  digestion  is  finished,  their  contents  are  emptied  with  violence, 
under  the  pressure  of  not  less  than  65  pounds  of  steam  which  had  been  kept  up  inside. 
A  large  slide-valve  is  for  this  purpose  attached  to  the  sides  of  each  boiler,  close  to  the 
perforated  bottom  diaphragm,  and  connected  by  a  capacious  pipe  with  a  sheet-iron 
cylinder  of  about  12  feet  diameter  and  about  10  feet  height,  which  receives  its  contents 
— pulp,  liquor,  and  steam.  The  object  of  these  large  chambers,  one  of  which  serves 
for  two  boilers,  is  to  break  the  violence  of  the  discharging  mass.  The  steam  is  taken  ofl* 
through  a  pipe  on  top  of  each  one,  and  conducted  through  a  water-reservoir,  while  the 
liquid  solution  of  pulp  flows  through  a  side  opening  and  a  short  pipe  at  the  bottom  into 
movable  boxes.  These  boxes  are  flat  iron  drainers,  large  enough  to  hold  the  contents 
of  one  boiler,  and  mounted  on  wheels ;  they  can  be  j^ushed  on  iron  rails  right  up  to 
and  under  the  collecting-chambers,  in  positions  suitable  for  the  reception  of  the  pulj). 

Ten  digesting-boilers  are  located  in  one  straight  line  in  a  building  of  132  feet 
length  and  75  feet  width ;  the  main  line  of  rails  runs  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
boilers,  side-tracks  extend  from  it  to  each  one  of  the  chambers,  and  a  turn-table  is 
supplied  at  every  junction.  The  drainer- wagons  can  thus  be  pushed  from  the  side- 
tracks on  to  the  main  line,  which  leads  to  the  washing-engines  in  an  adjoining  room, 

The  tracks  are  underlaid  with  iron  pipes  or  sewers,  arranged  so  that  they  will 
receive  all  the  liquid  which  drains  off"  from  the  wagons.  The  latter  remain  on  the 
side-tracks,  until  the  pulp  is  ready  for  the  washing-engine,  and,  after  the  principal 
part  of  the  liquor  has  passed  off,  some  warm  water  from  the  receiver,  which  has  been 
heated  by  the  blown-off  steam,  is  sprinkled  over  the  pulp  by  means  of  a  hose,  with 
the  object  of  extracting  all  the  liquid  which  is  concentrated  enough  to  repay  evap- 
oration. 

The  contents  of  the  wagons,  obtained  from  as  many  boilers,  are  then  furnished 
into  two  washing  engines,  each  one  of  which  has  a  capacity  of  1000  pounds  of  pulp ; 
but  the  water,  which  is  poured  forth  by  the  cylinder- washers,  being  too  diluted  for 
evaporation,  is  allowed  to  escape.  The  pulp  is  emptied  from  these  engines  into  two 
stuff-chests,  and  from  there  forwarded  by  pumps  to  two  wet-machines  of  the  kind 
represented  by  Figs.  92  and  98. 


302 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


The  screens  of  these  wet-machines  retain  all  impurities  derived  from  knots,  bark, 
and  other  sources,  and  the  pulp  or  half-stuff  obtained  is  perfectly  clean  and  of  a  light- 
gray  color.  It  is  bleached  in  engines  with  a  solution  of  bleaching  powders — like 
rags — emptied  into  drainers,  and  kept  there  with  the  liquid  for  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours,  or  long  enough  to  make  the  use  of  vitriol  unnecessary. 

The  portion  of  the  white  pulp,  which  is  to  be  worked  up  in  the  adjoining  mill  of 
Mr,  Martin  Nixon,  is  taken  from  the  drainers  into  boxes  running  on  trucks  and  for- 
warded in  a  moist  state ;  but  all  the  pulp  which  is  to  be  shipped  to  a  distance  must  be 
made  into  rolls  on  a  large  cylinder  pajDer-machine  with  many  dryers.  The  object 
being  only  to  dry  the  pulp,  and  not  to  make  paper,  a  very  heavy  web  can  be 
obtained,  as  the  water  leaves  this  pulp  freely. 

240.  Recovery  of  Soda  by  Evaporation. — The  liquid,  which  has  been  drained  from 
the  pulp,  and  gathered  underneath  the  track,  is  conducted  in  pipes  to  a  separate 
building  to  be  evaporated.  The  outline  of  this  building  is  a  circle  of  about  200  feet 
diameter,  and  the  centre  is  occupied  by  a  large  smoke-stack,  against  which  all  the 
furnaces  converge,  while  the  fire-hearths  are  near  the  periphery.  The  furnaces  are 
very  long,  and  the  gases  of  combustion  or  smoke  are  compelled  to  travel  a  consider- 
able distance,  and  distribute  their  heat  both  above  and  below  their  route  before  they 
can  escape  through  the  chimney. 

The  liquid  is  pumped  into  large  iron  tanks  adjoining  the  stack,  around  which 
the  gases  of  combustion  circulate  before  escaping  finally.  From  there  it  gradually 
descends  through  a  series  of  flat  iron  pans  until  it  reaches  the  reverberating  calcining 
furnace,  situated  next  to  the  fire-hearth,  and  exposed  to  the  heat  from  the  fire  and 
gases  which  pass  over  it.  The  tough  mass  is  there  stirred  uj)  with  rakes  from  side- 
doors,  and  drawn  out  as  soon  as  it  is  jjerfectly  calcined  or  burnt  to  cinders,  so  that 
all  vegetable  matters,  or  anything  not  of  a  mineral  nature,  will  be  driven  out,  and 
nothing  but  a  black  ash  remains. 

The  soda  in  this  black  ash  reappears  as  carbonate,  with  the  exception  of  a  very 
small  portion  which  may  have  combined  with  silicates  and  become  insoluble.  The 
ulmic  acid  which  gives  to  the  extract  solution  of  wood  its  dark  color,  is  the  same  which 
is  formed  by  nature  from  decaying  vegetation,  and  can  frequently  be  recognized  in 
swampy  lands.    It  is  entirely  destroyed  by  the  calcining  process. 

The  evaporating  furnaces  may  be  different  from  those  described,  but  the  prin- 
ciple is  always  the  .same.  The  best  constructed  evaporators  are  those  in  which  the 
largest  quantity  of  liquid  can  be  reduced  to  ash  with  a  given  quantity  of  coal  and 
with  the  least  labor. 

If  the  liquor  is  too  much  diluted,  the  expenses  of  recovery,  which  include  besides 
coal  and  labor,  frequent  costly  repairs  and  renewals  of  the  evaporating  pans,  may  be 
higher  than  the  value  of  the  soda  ash.  Any  soda  liquor  testing  5  degrees  or  more  on 
Baume's  hydrometer  is,  at  the  ordinary  market  prices  of  coal  and  soda  ash  at  Mana- 
yunk,  considered  strong  enough  for  evaporation. 

As  much  as  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  soda  ash  can  thus  be  recovered  in  the  form 


WOOD. 


303 


of  black  ash,  which  must  be  mixed  with  fresh  soda,  causticized  with  lime,  and  used  for 
another  solution  in  the  usual  way.  The  sediment  obtained  from  this  second  solution 
is  at  Manayunk  redissolved  with  water,  and  conducted  into  large  brick  cisterns,  filled 
with  cinders,  ashes,  and  broken  bricks,  through  which  the  clear  liquid  filters,  and  is 
used  in  the  place  of  water  for  another  solution  of  caustic  soda,  while  the  insoluble 
impurities  are  retained  on  the  surface.  These  filters  answer  a  double  purpose,  as  they 
not  only  extract  all  the  soda  wdiich  may  have  been  left  in  the  sediment,  but  also  col- 
lect the  lime,  silicates,  and  impurities  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  carried  away, 
instead  of  being  allowed  to  escape  into  the  river  and  to  pollute  its  waters. 

The  free  escape  of  soda  liquor,  loaded  with  extracts  of  straw,  wood  or  esparto, 
into  rivers  or  creeks  has,  in  some  places,  become  such  a  serious  nuisance  that  manu- 
facturers are  compelled  by  law  to  dispose  of  it  in  some  other  manner,  and  they 
have  mostly  adopted  evaporation  as  the  best  means  to  this  end. 

The  wood-pulp  made  at  Royer's  Ford  and  Manayunk  is  perfectly  clean,  of  a  soft, 
white,  spongy  fibre,  and  the  larger  portion  of  it  is  mixed  with  a  small  proj^ortion  of 
rags  and  worked  into  book  and  fine  print-paper.  At  Royer's  Ford  the  company  manu- 
facture fine  colored  envelope  and  book-paper  from  this  wood-pulp  alone,  or  mixed 
Avith  white  paper-shavings.  The  fibres  are  deficient  in  strength,  but  unsurpassed  as  a 
material  for  blotting-paper,  and  they  are  very  much  liked  by  tbe  printers. 

Poplar,  or  more  correctly  liriodendron,  furnishes  very  white  fibres ;  it  is  easily 
digested,  and  generally  preferred  to  other  woods  for  the  manufacture  of  pulp ;  its 
fibres,  however,  are  short,  and  it  is,  therefore,  sometimes  found  expedient  to  mix  them 
with  the  longer  ones,  from  spruce  or  pine,  although  the  latter,  which  contain  much 
resin,  resist  with  greater  obstinacy  the  influence  of  the  dissolving  agents'  which  are 
brought  to  bear  upon  them. 

241».  Yield  of  Fibres,  Bleaching,  and  Conclusions. — Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson,  in  his 
testimony  as  an  expert,  has  given  the  quantities  and  lengths  of  fibre,  contained  in 
different  kinds  of  wood,  as  ascertained  by  him  from  a  large  number  of  exj)eriments,  as 
follows : 


Percentage 

Length  of 

Percentage 

of  Pulp. 

Fibre. 

of  Pulp. 

Maple-wood,  unseasoned. 

21.2 

0.0300 

White  pine,  seasoned. 

33.25 

Cherry-wood,  seasoned, 

32. 

0.1000 

Walnut,  very  dry, 

42. 

Yellow  pine,  " 

36.5 

0.3750 

Hickory,  seasoned. 

22.6 

Hemlock,  " 

45. 

0.2675 

Oak,  unseasoned. 

20.6 

Ebony,  " 

14.5 

0.0500 

Chestnut,  " 

25.17 

Ash,  unseasoned, 

■  20.6 

0.0625 

Birch,  seasoned. 

40. 

Poplar,  " 

30. 

0.0162 

Box-wood,  " 

33.64 

Poplar,  seasoned, 

37. 

Lignumvitje,  seasoned. 

15.8 

Spruce  pine,  " 

32. 

Mahogany,  " 

29. 

Dog-wood,  " 

35.7 

Rose-wood,  " 

30.25 

These  j)roportions  can,  however,  hardly  be  extracted  on  a  large  scale,  even  by 
the  most  careful  digestion,  and  a  portion  of  the  pulp  must  be  lost  in  the  subsequent 
operations. 


304 


SUBSTITUTES  FOE  BAGS. 


Dr.  Cresson  states  in  the  same  testimony  the  results  which  he  obtained  from  the 
treatment  of  wood-pulp  with  chlorine  in  solution,  as  follows : 

"  Chlorine  acts  with  much  energy  upon  joortious  of  the  intercellular  matter,  especially  that  adher- 
ing to  the  surface  of  the  fibre,  but  I  have  failed  to  produce  a  satisfactory  pulp  by  its  use  alone.  Its^ 
use  as  a  bleaching  agent  upon  pure  cellulose  obtained  by  the  full  action  of  an  alkaline  bath  under 
proper  pressure  I  suppose  to  be  purely  molecular. 

"From  an  impure  pulp  it  would  undoubtedly  remove  the  incrust  adhering  to  the  fibre  and 
dotted  vessels,  but  this  is  done  more  cheaply  and  effectually  by  the  proper  alkaline  treatment. 

"  The  process  of  bleaching  does  not  seem  to  indicate  the  removal  of  any  such  matters. 

"  I  have  carefully  weighed  samples  of  pure  pulp  before  and  after  bleaching  by  chlorine  and  can 
find  no  appreciable  loss.  Again,  the  effect  of  the  action  of  chlorine  is  not  always  to  produce  a  white 
color ;  in  most  cases  the  color  produced  is  white,  but  in  others  it  has  a  grayish,  and  again  a  yellowish 
cast." 

The  Royer's  Ford  and  Manayunk  Avorks  get  from'  27  to  28  per  cent,  of  pulp  from 
young  poplar  wood,  and  about  30  per  cent,  from  old  air-dry  poplar  wood,  one  cord  of 
which  weighs  from  2800  to  3400  j^ounds. 

Wood  contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  fibres,  and  requires  a  larger  quantity  of 
soda  ash  (100  to  112  pounds  for  100  pounds  of  paper)  for  its  digestion  than  straw;  the 
production  of  wood-pulp  is,  therefore,  everything  else  being  the  same,  more  expen- 
sive. Its  manufacture  can  only  be  made  to  pay  by  the  superiority  of  the  article  pro- 
duced, by  the  recovery  of  the  soda  through  evaporation,  and  in  a  location  favorable 
for  the  supply  of  wood,  coal,  and  all  other  materials. 

242.  Other  Systeins  of  Boiling'. — Another  system  of  utilizing  the  waste  liquor  is  to 
boil  a  second  lot  of  stock  with  it,  as  is  done  in  some  mills  with  the  Dixon  boilers.  It 
is,  however,  doubtful,  whether  the  second  lot  of  pulp  (from  straw)  will  not  suffer  in 
quality. 

A  new  system  of  boiling  wood  is  in  operation  at  a  mill  in  Maine.  A  strong 
solution  of  caustic  soda  is  forced  under  high  pressure,  but  cold,  into  a  boiler  loaded 
with  chips  of  wood,  with  which  it  is^  however,  allowed  to  be  in  contact  only  during  a 
very  short  time.  The  solution  is  soon  drawn  off  again,  and  the  wood  emptied  into  a 
second  boiler,  where  it  is  subjected  to  the  influence  of  a  high  temperature,  produced 
by  steam  circulating  in  an  outside  jacket.  It  is  thus  merely  impregnated  with  caustic 
soda,  and  consumes  only  a  small  portion  of  the  usual  quantity.  A  good-looking 
brown  paper  is  made  at  this  place,  but  we  have  not  heard  of  any  white  paper,  except 
samples,  being  manufactured  there. 

243.  Orioli  Fredet  and  Matussiere's  Patent. — Messrs.  Orioli  Fredet  and  Matus- 
siere,  in  France,  received  a  patent  of  invention  on  April  25th,  1865,  for  the  treatment 
of  wood  with  aqua  regia.  The  invention  is  based  on  the  discovery  that  aqua  regia,  a 
mixture  of  5  to  40  per  cent,  of  nitric  acid  and  95  to  60  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
destroys  all  ligneous  or  intercellular  matter,  without  attacking  the  fibre  or  cellulose. 

After  the  wood  or  straw  has  been  soaked  in  this  acid,  the  surplus  is  drawn  off, 
and  the  remaining  solid  part  ground  under  vertically  revolving  millstones.  The 
brownish-colored  pulp  thus  obtained  is  then  washed  and  bleached  as  usual. 

Nitric  acid,  or  its  mixture  with  hydrochloric  acid,  is  theoretically  very  well 


WOOD. 


305 


adapted  for  the  extraction  of  eellulose  from  wood,  straw,  and  other  vegetable  fibres, 
but  the  difficulties  which  are  encountered  in  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  them,  are 
nearly  insurmountable,  and  have  prevented  their  practical  utilization  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper.  Very  few  materials  are  able  to  resist  the  corrosive  influence  of  these 
acids ;  the  vessels  for  the  digestion  of  wood  or  straw  would  have  to  be  covered  with 
varnish  or  paraffin  and  well  cemented  glass-plates,  all  the  pipes  used  for  the  escape  of 
the  gases  and  liquids  would  have  to  be  of  glass,  and  any  escape  of  vapors  or  gases 
would  have  to  be  strictly  avoided,  as  no  human  being  could  live  in  an  atmosphere 
pervaded  by  them.  Nitric  acid  also  forms  with  cellulose  the  very  inflammable 
xyloidin,  a  substance  akin  to  gun-cotton,  and  the  danger  from  this  source  would 
seem  alone  sufficient  to  forbid  its  use. 

244.  Sulphide  of  Sodium. — A  patent  has  been  obtained  by  Professor  Eaton,  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  for  a  process  of  making  sulphide  of  sodium,  and  for  the  use  of  that 
article  as  a  substitute  for  carbonate  or  caustic  soda  in  paper-making.  Works  for  its 
manufacture  are  being  erected,  and  nearly  finished,  by  the  Eaton  Fibre  Company  at 
Brooklyn,  New  York. 

The  late  Mr.  John  Priestley  stated  to  the  author,  that  according  to  experiments 
on  a  large  scale,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  made,  the  sulphide  of  sodium,  besides 
being  much  cheaper,  proved  to  be  more  efficient  than  caustic  soda. 

245.  Adamson's  Patent. — William  Adamson,  of  Philadelphia,  has  obtained  patents 
of  invention  dated  July  18th,  1871,  for  the  use  of  hydrocarbons  in  the  production  of 
paper-stock  from  wood  or  other  ligneous  substances.  He  recommends  treatment  with 
benzine  in  closed  vessels,  with  5  to  10  pounds  of  pressure,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  wood.  His  digester  consists  of  an  upright  cylinder,  wherein  the  wood  shavings  or 
other  materials  are  contained  between  two  horizontal  perforated  diaphragms.  The  mass 
is  heated  beneath  the  lower  diaphragm  by  a  coil,  through  which  steam  circulates. 
The  vapors  which  escape  through  a  pipe  on  top  of  the  digester  are  condensed  by  pass- 
ing through  a  coil  immersed  in  a  cistern  with  cold  water,  and  return  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  digester.  The  portion  of  the  benzine,  which  has  remained  liquid,  is  satu- 
rated with  the  extract  matters,  and  can  be  drawn  off  through  a  faucet  at  the  bottom. 

Benzine  is  a  very  cheap  article,  and  the  invention,  even  if  not  successful  for 
wood,  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  other  purposes.  It  is,  for  instance,  recom- 
mended in  a  separate  patent,  issued  September  19tli,  1871,  for  the  extraction  of  pitch 
and  tar  from  rags,  and  it  may,  perhaps,  answer  very  well  for  the  extraction  of  oil 
from  rags  and  cotton  waste. 

Straw  and  other  vegetable  substances,  as  wxll  as  wood — the  latter  even  in  the 
form  of  shavings  and  sawdust^^are  rapidly  disintegrated  by  this  process. 

The  resultant  products  from  experiments  on  straw  were  fine  long  fibres,  and  very 
fine  white  vegetable  wax.  The  process  has,  thus  far,  not  been  extensively  carried 
out,  as  the  patentee  has  found  it  necessary  to  obtain,  by  further  experiments,  correct 
data  and  results  before  entering  upon  operations  on  a  very  large  scale,  which  he 
intends  soon  to  start. 

39 


306 


SUBSTITUTES  FOE  BAGS. 


* 

SECTION  VII. 
Mechanically  Prepared  Wood-Pulp. 

246.  History. — Dr.  SdiaefFer,  at  Regensburg,  Bavaria,  had,  over  one  hundred  years 
ago,  jiroposed  the  use  of  sawdust  and  shavings,  by  stamping  them  into  a  pulp,  but  the 
imperfect  state  of  the  machinery  within  his  reach  made  success  at  that  time  impossible. 

F.  G.  Keller,  in  Saxony,  originated  the  idea  of  grinding  wood  by  pressing  blocks 
of  it  against  a  cylinder  of  sandstone  revolving  in  a  vertical  position;  but  Henry  Voel- 
ter,  of  Heidenheim,  Wiirtemberg,  Germany,  took  it  up,  and  succeeded,  after  twenty 
years  of  labor  and  expensive  experimenting,  in  bringing  the  process  to  its  present 
perfection.  To  him  belongs,  therefore,  the  credit  of  having  given  us  a  new  material, 
which,  if  it  does  not  improve  the  quality  of  all  papers,  is,  through  its  cheapness,  profit- 
able to  the  manufacturer,  and  by  taking  to  some  extent  the  place  of  rags,  has  assisted 
in  keeping  their  prices  within  reasonable  bounds. 

247.  Voelter's  System  of  Manufacturing  Wood-Pulp. — The  wood  is  cut  up  into  short 
blocks,  four  or  five  of  which  are  pressed  against  one  of  the  upper  quadrants  of  the 
revolving  surface  of  a  cylinder  of  sandstone,  which  turns  on  a  horizontal  shaft,  while 
the  balance  of  the  stone  is  surrounded  by  an  iron  casing. 

The  blocks  are  constantly  pushed  forward  by  screws  operated  by  gearing,  in  the 
same  proportion  as  they  wear  oft". 

Mr.  Voelter  says  that  levers  and  weights,  in  the  place  of  screws,  would  not  pro- 
duce a  uniform  pulp  ;  that  he  has  tried  to  revolve  the  wood  with  or  against  the  stone; 
and  also  to  use  the  stone  in  a  horizontal  position,  turning  on  a  vertical  shaft,  but  with- 
out success. 

The  wood  must  be  pressed  against  the  stoiie,  so  that  the  grain  will  run  jiarallel 
with  the  axis,  and  that  the  fibres  will  be  toi'n  off  by  the  rough  surface,  instead  of 
being  ground  or  powdered. 

A  small  stream  of  water  falls  constantly  upon  the  stone,  and  carries  the  pulp  first 
through  a  rake,  which  retains  the  coarsest  pieces  of  wood,  and  then  to  a  wire-covered 
cylinder  turning  on  its  horizontal  axis. 

The  pulj),  Avhich  passes  through  the  wire  from  the  outside  to  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder,  is  ready  to  be  sorted,  and  for  this  purjjose  conducted  through  several 
revolving  Avires  of  successive  coarser  grades.  The  finest  fibres  only,  are  able  to  get 
through  the  meshes  of  the  first  fine  wire,  and  are  gathered  in  the  receiver  below, 
while  the  coarser  ones  move  on,  until  they  find  openings  suited  to  their  grade. 

The  wood  which  is  too  coarse  to  pass  through  the  wire-cloth  on  the  first  cylin- 
der, is  conducted  to  a  refiner,  where  it  is  subjected  to  another  disintegration,  and  then 
returned  to  the  first  cylinder  by  means  of  a  pump. 


MECHANICALLY  PEEP  ABED  WOOD-PULP. 


307 


A  system  of  pulping  and  sorting,  like  the  one  just  described,  was  put  in  opera- 
tion by  Mr.  Voelter  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1867,  where  the  assorted  pulp,  thus 
obtained,  Avas  pressed  out  between  three  pairs  of  press-rolls,  through  which  it  was 
carried  upon  an  apron. 

248.  Operations  of  the  Turner's  Falls  Pulp  Company's  Mill. — A  considerable  num- 
ber of  mills  have  been  built  in  this  country  within  the  last  few  years,-  according  to 
Voelter's  directions,  and  w^orking  under  his  patents ;  and  a  description  of  the  lai^gest 
establishment  of  this  kind,  visited  by  the  author,  will  probably  bring  the  process  more 
clearly  to  the  reader's  mind  than  mere  theoretical  explanations. 

The  mill  is  owned  by  the  Turner's  Falls  Pulji  Company,  of  Turner's  Falls,  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  is  driven  by  turbine  wheels,  which  are  sup2)lied  with  sufficient  amounts 
of  water  for  the  production  of  1000  horse-power,  by  the  Water-Power  Company  at 
the  same  place,  from  their  dam  across  the  Connecticut  Eiver. 

The  building  is  of  brick,  50  feet  by  200,  one  story  high,  and  contains  twenty- 
four  grinding  stones,  which  are  divided  in  equal  numbers  along  the  two  side  walls. 

Poplar  wood  is  used  exclusively ;  it  is  furnished  to  the  mill  in  short  round  logs, 
which  are  cut  by  a  circular  saw  into  blocks  of  13j-  inches  in  length  (the  width  of  the 
stones),  and  split  lengthways  by  another  circular  saw,  according  to  its  size,  into  either 
two  or  four  pieces.  The  knots  in  the  wood,  which  have  then  become  visible,  are  cut 
out  by  hand  with  an  axe. 

The  waste  derived  from  these  j)reparatory  operations  is  burnt  under  steam-boilers, 
and  heats  the  building,  or  is  sold  ns  fuel  to  adjoining  mills. 

The  blocks  are  furnished  to  the  stones  as  they  may  be  required,  and  reduced  to 
pulp  in  the  manner  previously  described. 

The  pulp  from  the  twelve  stones  on  one  side  is  directly  conducted  into  a  coarse 
screen  moved  by  knockers,  and  constructed  like  those  used  on  paper-machines.  It 
stands  in  the  middle,  between  the  two  rows  of  stones,  and  the  screened  pulp  flows 
from  it  through  a  trough  to  the  sorting  apparatus. 

Two  rows  of  sorters  or  splinter-moulds,  as  they  are  called,  occupy  the  larger 
part  of  the  space  between  the  two  rows  of  stones,  corresponding  with  them  also 
in  numbers.  They  are  3  feet  long,  2  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  covered  with  No.  18 
wire-cloth. 

The  twelve  grinders  on  one  side  work  together,  and  make  only  one  grade,  or 
No.  1  pulp. 

They  are  set  on  a  high  framework,  and  a  refiner  is  located  under  each  one  of 
them.  These  refiners  consist  of  a  lower  stationary  stone  and  an  upper  revolving 
one,  like  those  of  a  flour-mill.  They  are,  however,  of  sandstone,  and  cut  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  will  tear  and  not  pulverize  the  wood. 

The  coarse  fibres  or  splinters,  which  could  not  pass  through  the  wire,  flow  to 
these  refiners,  are  reduced  between  the  stones,  pumped  back  again  to  the  splinter- 
moulds,  and  return  to  the  refiners  until  they  are  fine  enough  to  get  through. 


308 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RAGS. 


The  stuff-eliest,  which  collects  the  pulp  from  the  interior  of  all  the  wire-cylin- 
ders, supplies,  by  means  of  a  stuff-pump,  a  boai'd  machine  consisting  of  a  making- 
cylinder  and  a  first  press.  Six  to  eight  thicknesses  of  the  web  of  pulp  are  allowed  to 
collect  on  the  upper  iron  press-roll,  when  they  are  cut  through  with  a  wooden  knife, 
and  taken  off  in  the  form  of  boards. 

The  splinter-moulds  of  the  other  twelve  stones  are  covered  Avith  No.  8  wire- 
cloth,  and  the  fibres  which  cannot  at  once  pass  through  it  are  simply  removed  and 
considered  waste. 

The  larger  part  of  the  j^ulp,  however,  is  fine  enough  for  this  number,  and  the 
waste  does  not  exceed  5  per  cent. 

The  No.  2  pulp,  thus  obtained  without  the  use  of  refiners,  is  also  formed  into 
wet  boards,  but  being  much  coarser,  it  sells  at  a  lower  price  than  No.  1. 

The  working  surface  of  the  stones  is  made  rough  by  a  steel  roll  covered  with 
projecting  points,  which  is  pressed  against  it  while  running. 

The  frame  carrying  the  steel  roll  is,  for  this  purpose,  fastened  to  the  casing, 
whenever  a  stone  becomes  dull. 

Besides  this  roughing  there  are  channels,  over  \  inch  deep,  cut  into  the  surface 
of  the  stone  2^  to  3  inches  apart.  There  are  two  sets  of  these  channels,  each  forming 
an  angle  of  30  degrees  with  one  edge ;  they  cross  each  other  in  the  middle,  and  carry 
the  piilp  off  to  both  sides. 

The  pulp  in  wet  boards  contains  about  60  per  cent,  of  water,  and  is  thus  shipped 
to  the  mills.  To  find  the  exact  jjroportion  of  wood  contained  in  the  pulp,  one  of  the 
boards  is  weighed,  dried  in  an  oven,  and  weighed  again.  It  is  then  drier  than  the 
paper-machine  would  make  it,  and  as  it  is  only  sold  air-dry,  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  are 
added  to  the  oven-dry  weight. 

When  the  atmosphere  is  loaded  with  moisture,  it  will  not  extract  as  much  water 
from  the  pulp  as  when  it  is  perfectly  dry.  Seven  per  cent,  only  is  therefore  added 
to  the  oven-dry  weight  on  wet  or  damp  days,  but  10  per  cent,  on  clear  ones. 

If  a  pulp  shows,  for  example,  on  a  damp  day  an  oven-dry  weight  of  33  per  cent., 
7  per  cent,  or  2i  pounds  must  be  added  to  33,  making  altogether  35^  pounds  of  air- 
dry  pulp  for  every  100  pounds  of  pulp  shipped. 

The  Turner's  Falls  Company  can  turn  out  5  tons  of  air-dry  pulp  per  day  by 
employing  from  fifty  to  sixty  hands,  and  produces  about  1200  pounds  of  air-dry  pulp 
from  one  cord  of  poplar  wood. 

249.  Treatment  of  the  Pulp  and  Conclusions. — If  the  pulp  is  in  store  or  transporta- 
tion for  a  long  time,  it  loses  a  large  portion  of  its  water  by  evajioration,  becomes  hard, 
and  can  only  with  difficulty  be  dissolved  in  the  engines. 

Voelter  recommends  therefore  the  building  of  pulp  mills  only,  where  suitable 
woods  can  be  had  at  low  prices,  with  ample  water-power,  cheap  labor,  clear  water,  and 
where  the  produce  will  be  consumed  in  the  neighborhood. 

He  prefers  pine  and  fir  wood  for  the  felting  power  (length  )  of  their  fibres,  and 
aspen  and  lime  trees  for  their  color. 


MECHANICALLY  PREPARED  WOOD-PULP. 


309 


The  pulp  from  poplar  wood  will  imi^rove  the  color  of  darker  grades,  but  injure 
the  color  of  very  white  papers. 

The  fibres  produced  in  this  way  cannot  be  pure  cellulose,  but  are  surrounded 
with  the  incrusting  substances  or  intercellulose  of  the  wood.  Though  they  may  have 
some  felting  power,  they  cannot  be  considered  as  a  substitute  for  hemp  or  linen, 
or  even  for  chemically-prepared  fibres  of  wood  and  straw,  but  only  as  a  convenient 
material  which  adds  to  the  bulk  and  weight  of  the  paper  without  requiring  any 
preparation. 

It  is  simply  added  to  the  pulp  in  the  beaters,  but,  as  it  is  necessary  to  dissolve 
it  into  the  thinnest  possible  fibres,  it  should  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  roll  for 
at  least  one  hour. 

If  it  is  not  well  mixed  with  the  rag  pulp,  the  wood  will  come  to  the  surface 
while  on  the  wire-cloth,  and  make  one  side  of  the  paper  rough. 

A  larger  proportion  of  wood  can  be  used  with  strong  pulp  and  heavy  paper 
than  with  weak  pulp  and  light  paper. 

250.  Improvement  Patents. — Since  Voelter's  machinery  has  been  successfully  in- 
troduced, a  number  of  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  imj^roved  grinders. 

Some  inventors  put  them  horizontally,  or  make  the  grinders  of  other  material 
than  sandstone ;  others  coat  only  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  with  a  composition  of  hard 
material. 

We  have  seen  at  Curtisville,  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,  a  narrow  iron 
cylinder  revolving  vertically  like  Voelter's  stones,  the  sides  of  which  are  filled  with 
an  artificial  coat,  made  of  a  paste,  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  flour  of  emery, 
becomes  hard  in  a  short  time,  and  resists  the  influence  of  water. 

Two  blocks  of  wood  are  pressed  against  each  of  the  two  flat  perpendicular  sides 
near  the  circumference. 

Mr.  F.  Burghardt,  the  inventor,  claims  that  he  saves  half  the  power  used  by 
Voelter's  stones,  and  produces  a  better  and  more  uniform  pulp. 


310 


SUBSTITUTES  FOB  BAGS. 


SECTION  VIIL 
Cane,  Jute,  and  Manilla. 

251.  Growth  and  Gathering-  of  Cane. — In  the  Dismal  Swamp  and  along  the  rivers 
of  North  and  South  Carolina,  as  well  as  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Mississippi,  the  coun- 
try is  covered  for  many  miles  with  the  spontaneous  growth  of  a  reed  or  cane,  the 
botanical  name  of  which  is  Arundinaria  macrosperha. 

This  cane  is  a  hollow  tube,  about  12  feet  high,  nearly  white,  and  apparently 
composed  of  tough,  strong  fibres.  The  territory  covered  with  it,  is  so  vast  and 
unfit  for  any  other  useful  growth,  that  the  supply  of  cane  seems  to  be  nearly  inex- 
haustible, especially  if  it  is  considered  that  a  new  crop  can  be  cut  every  three  years. 

The  American  Fibre  Company  have  undertaken  to  utilize  this  material  for  the 
purposes  of  paper-making,  and  secured  the  methods  by  which  it  is  done,  with 
numerous  j^atents. 

The  Norfolk  Fibre  Company,  near  Norfolk,  Va.,  and  the  Cape  Fear  Fibre 
Company,  near  Wilmington,  N.  C,  are  working  under  these  patents. 

The  Norfolk  works,  which  we  have  visited,  are  situated  on  the  Dismal  Swamp 
Canal,  near  the  track  of  the  Norfolk  and  Weldon  Railroad,  about  4  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  Portsmouth,  Virginia. 

The  cane  is  cut  in  the  swamps  along  the  canal  with  scythes,  such  as  are  used  for 
cutting  corn-stalks.  Wherever  large  quantities  are  found  in  one  body,  a  railroad  is 
constructed  of  sleepers  and  4  by  4  inch  wooden  rails.  The  cane,  the  heads  of  which 
have  been  cut  off,  is  tied  in  bundles,  taken  on  trucks  to  the  canal,  loaded  on  flat-boats 
which  are  capable  of  carrying  150  cords,  and  conveyed  to  the  works. 

The  cost  of  labor  (colored  men)  and  transportation  is  reduced  by  this.system  so 
low  that  one  ton  of  cane  can  be  delivered  at  the  mills  for  $3. 

The  bundles  are  opened  where  they  have  been  landed,  cleared  of  all  refuse 
matter,  and  made  into  compact  packages  of  1  foot  in  diameter,  which  are  forwarded 
on  another  wooden  railroad  to  the  gun-room. 

252.  Operations  of  the  Cane-Fibre  Mills. — The  cane  is  disintegrated  by  the  Lyman 
process,  patented  August  3d,  1858,  in  the  following  manner : 

Strong  cast-iron  cylinders,  22  feet  long  and  of  12  inches  inside  diameter,  are  laid 
horizontally  on  heavy  frames,  and  provided  with  strong  heads  at  both  open  ends. 
To  fill  them,  the  rear  covers  are  taken  off,  as  much  of  the  cane  as  possible  is  packed 
in,  and  both  ends  are  closed  tight  again. 

The  cylinders,  being  filled  up,  would  not  leave  room  enough  for  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  steam ;  each  one  is  therefore  provided  with  a  steam-dome,  which  consists 


CANE,  JUTE,  AND  MANILLA. 


311 


of  a  shorter  cylinder  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  gun,  the  T-sliaped  outlets  of  both 
dome  and  gun  being  bolted  together  near  and  above  the  rear  end. 

Steam  is  admitted  into  the  loaded  guns  until  the  pressure-gauge  shows  150  to 
180  j)ounds,  and  kept  so  for  about  twelve  minutes,  when,  by  means  of  a  long  rod  or 
trigger,  the  fastenings  of  the  cover  at  the  discharge  end  or  muzzle  are  loosened,  and  it 
is  allowed  to  drop  out  suddenly. 

The  steam  in  the  dome  then  rushes  out  with  such  force  that  it  carries  the  cane 
before  it.  On  reaching  the  atmosphere,  the  steam,  with  which  all  the  pores  of  the 
cane  are  filled,  expands  violently,  thoroughly  disintegrating  it ;  and  the  load  strikes  a 
target,  about  30  feet  from  the  guns,  as  a  mass  of  brown  sugary-smelling  fibre. 

The  discharge  causes  a  report  equal  to  that  of  a  large  cannon,  and  can  be  heard 
at  a  distance  of  several  miles.  The  concussion  of  the  air  all  around  is  so  violent  that 
it  is  impossible  to  stand  unsupported  anywhere  in  the  gun-room. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  steam  at  its  high  temperature  dissolves  first  the  resinous 
and  gummy  matters,  and  that  the  cane  is  then  torn  asunder  by  the  violence  of  the 
explosion.  Whatever  may  be  the  correct  theory,  the  disintegrating  power  of  the 
operation  is  wonderful,  and  acts,  as  we  are  told,  as  well  on  wood  and  other  fibrous 
substances  as  on  cane. 

A  gun  loaded  with  100  pounds  of  cane  can  be  discharged  every  fifteen  miimtes, 
and  six  are  required  to  keep  the  hands  constantly  employed  filling  them.  The  four 
guns  at  the  Norfolk  Fibre  Company's  works,  one  of  which  is  of  a  larger  size,  can 
turn  out  from  16  to  24  tons  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  full  weight  of  the  dry  cane,  less  some  dust  and  impurities,  is  obtained  in 
perfectly  dry  fibres,  which  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  oakum,  are  packed  in 
bales  weighing  about  320  pounds,  and  shipped  either  by  rail  or  water. 

The  fibres  in  this  form  make  a  strong,  spongy  paper,  which  can  easily  be  sat- 
urated with  other  liquids.  They  are  therefore  largely  used  for  roofing-paper,  boards, 
wrapping,  &c.  They  have  also  been  bleached  by  the  same  process  as  straw,  and  pro- 
duced strong  white  paper ;  but  the  large  quantity  of  tannic  acid  or  tannin  contained 
in  the  cane,  makes  the  extraction  of  the  clean  white  fibre  more  difficult  and  costly 
than  from  some  other  materials. 

In  order  to  extract  all  the  parts  which  are  soluble  in  water  and  to  reduce  the 
bulk  of  the  fibres,  the  Cape  Fear  Fibre  Company  puts  them  through  a  washing 
process,  which  is  described  in  an  article  in  No.  5  of  the  Paper  Trade  Journal,  as 
follows  : 

"The  fibre  is  next  submitted  to  the  washing  process.  It  is  gathered  up,  thrown  into  large  tubs, 
and  passed  by  means  of  a  continuous  stream  of  spring-water  thrown  by  a  steam-pump  under  the  rolls  of 
four  beating-engines,  similar  to  those  used  in  the  paper-mills,  except  that  the  fibre  passes  from  one  to 
the  other,  instead  of  travelling  round  and  round.  It  then  passes  on  to  an  endless  wire-apron,  and  is 
carried  through  several  sets  of  iron  rollers,  the  last  set  being  covered  with  India-rubber.  The  fibre  is 
thus  squeezed  of  all  water  that  will  run  from  it,  and  comes  off  in  a  thick,  solid  sheet.  By  this  washing 
the  bulk  is  reduced  one-third,  being  deprived  of  all  the  gum,  dirt,  &c. ;  next  the  fibre  has  to  be  dried. 


312 


SUBSTITUTES  FOR  BAGS. 


It  is  slightly  picked  apart  aud  throwu  ou  to  an  apron,  which  leads  it  through  feed-rolls  to  a  picker, 
revolving  at  a  liigh  rate  of  speed,  which  thoroughly  pulls  it  apart  and  throws  it  on  the  apron  of  the 
drying-house.    This  house  is  70  feet  long,  and  is  heated  by  four  steam-pipes  running  side  by  side. 

"  The  endless  apron  travels  slowly  over  these  pipes,  taking  about  twenty  minutes  to  make  the  trip, 
and  the  fibre  is  taken  off  at  the  end  perfectly  dry.  It  is  then  baled  by  one  of  Dederick's  hay  presses, 
and  made  into  bales  averaging  500  pounds  in  weight.  The  pulp  made  from  this  is  soft  and  admirably 
adapted  for  making  paper,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  the  harsher  paper-making  substances,  such  as 
straw,  &c." 

The  almost  inexhaustible  supply  of  this  material  and  the  good  qualities  of  its 
fibres  make  it  very  desirable  that  it  should  be  utilized  on  a  much  larger  scale  than 
is  done  at  the  present  time. 

253.  Jute  and  Manilla. — Before  closing  the  chapter  on  substitutes  for  rags,  it  is 
necessary  to  enumerate  Jute  and  Manilla,  but  we  refer  for  the  discussion  of  these 
fibres  to  the  following  Chapter  V,  Section  IV,  on  Manilla  Paper. 


Chapter  V. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  PROCESSES  OF  MANUFACTURE  OF  SOME  CLASSES  OF 

PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


SECTION  I. 
Bank-Note  Paper. 

254.  Necessary  Qualities. — Paper  which  represents  money  and  circulates  as  such, 
is  frequently  subjected  to  very  rough  usage,  and  must  be  strong  and  tough.  The 
amount  which  it  represents,  and  other  matters  relating  to  it,  are  printed  on  its  sur- 
face ;  water-marks  are  often  desired  in  the  body  of  the  paper,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  that  it  should  be  manufactured  uniformly  and  perfectly  clean  and  clear. 
It  is  hardly  possible  to  produce  sheets  on  the  paper-machine  so  that  the  water-marks 
will  appear  upon  all  of  them  in  exactly  the  same  proportions  as  in  the  original  design, 
because  the  paper,  being  held  in  a  state  of  tension  only  in  the  direction  in  which  it 
travels,  but  not  crosswise,  will  be  unequally  contracted.  Hand-made  paper  is  for  this 
reason,  and  also  on  account  of  its  superior  strength,  frequently  used  for  bank-notes. 

Counterfeiters  have,  however,  with  the  aid  of  photography,  found  ways  and 
means  to  imitate  the  water-marks  as  well  as  the  most  elaborate  engravings  so  artisti- 
cally, as  to  deceive  not  only  the  public,  but  sometimes  even  experts. 

It  has  therefore  become  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  to  devise  a  method 
which  shall  defy  imitation. 

255.  The  Paper  Money  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States. — The  government 
of  the  United  States  has,  from  numerous  propositions,  selected  the  process  patented  by 
Mr.  Willcox,  and  all  the  paper  for  the  money  issued  by  this  government  is  at  present 
manufactured  on  a  62-inch  Fourdrinier  paper-machine  at  the  Glen  Mills  near  West 
Chester,  Pennsylvania,  owned  by  Messrs.  J.  M.  Willcox  &  Sons. 

Short  pieces  of  red  silk  are  mixed  with  the  pulp  in  the  engine,  and  the  finished 
stuff  is  conducted  to  the  wire,  without  passing  through  any  screens  which  might 
retain  the  silk  threads.  By  an  arrangement  above  the  wire-cloth,  a  shower  of  short 
pieces  of  fine  blue  silk  thread  is  dropped  in  streaks  on  the  paper,  while  it  is  being 
formed. 

40 


314 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


Tlius  every  legal  tender  note  shows  the  red  silk  distributed  all  through  the  mass, 
and  a  streak  of  blue  threads  only  in  a  certain  fixed  place. 

The  upper  side,  on,  which  the  blue  silk  is  dropped,  is  the  one  used  for  the  face 
of  the  notes,  and  from  the  manner  in  which  the  threads  are  applied,  must  show  them 
more  distinctly  than  the  lower  or  reverse  side,  although  they  are  imbedded  deeply 
enough  to  remain  fixed. 

The  mill  is  guarded  by  officials  day  and  night,  to  prevent  the  abstraction  of 
any  paper. 

Even  the  most  inexperienced  eye  can  perceive  at  a  glance  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  these  threads,  and  it  is  believed  that  paper  of  this  kind  cannot  be  made 
without  expensive  machinery.  Unless  the  counterfeiters  succeed  in  manufacturing 
or  stealing  it,  they  must  give  up  their  nefarious  profession  so  far  as  these  notes  are 
concerned. 

256.  Manufacture  of  Bank-Note  and  Bond  Paper. — Considerable  quantities  of  bank- 
note and  bond  pa})ers  are  manufactured  in  this  country  for  individuals,  corporations, 
and  foreign  governments. 

At  the  paper-mill  of  Marshall  Crane,  at  Dalton,  Mass.,  these  grades  have  been 
made  a  specialty  for  many  years,  and  will,  although  they  are,  without  exception,  fur- 
nished by  a  Fourdrinier  machine,  compare  favorably  with  the  best  hand-made  ones. 

Only  the  best  of  white  linen,  and  especially  cuttings  of  white,  pure,  flaxen  threads, 
imported  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  are  used.  They  are  boiled  in  wooden  tubs, 
washed  and  bleached  in  the  engine  with  very  little  chlorine  and  Avithout  vitriol.  The 
stuff  remains  in  the  beaters,  which  are  supplied  with  brass  plates,  sometimes  as  long 
as  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours.  It  is  sized  slightly  with  resin  soap,  and 
then  runs  over  the  machine,  where  it  receives  water-marks  from  the  dandy-roll. 
The  dried  paper  is  passed  through  animal  size,  cut  into  sheets,  and  taken  up  to  the 
loft  like  letter-paper. 

These  jjapers  neither  require  a  very  smooth  surface,  nor  will  the  water-marks 
admit  of  super-calendering ;  the  sheets  are  therefore  laid  between  fine  pasteboards, 
alternating  with  them,  and  the  piles  thus  formed  are  subjected  for  a  considerable 
time  to  a  strong  pressure,  whereby  they  obtain  what  is  called  a  dead  finish. 

Messrs.  Hudson  &  Clieeney,  at  North  Manchester,  Conn.,  make  bank-note  paper 
substantially  in  the  same  manner,  but  they  dry  it,  after  it  has  been  sized  in  the  web, 
by  leading  it  to  and  fro  over  carrying-rolls  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  and-  over  heated 
dryers  afterwards. 


TISSUE-PAPER. 


315 


SECTION  II. 
Tissue-Paper. 

257.  Operations  of  a  Tissue-Paper  Mill. — From  the  tliinness  of  tissue-i)aper  it  is 
difficult  to  handle ;  it  must  therefore  be  given  as  much  tenacity  as  possible  by  being 
composed  of  very  strong  fibres,  and  it  can  be  taken  over  a  machine  only,  which  has 
been  constructed  so  that  the  paper  will  pass  through  with  but  little  assistance. 

A  mill,  which  makes  a  sj)ecialty  of  fine  colored  tissue-papers,  works  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : 

Hemp-bagging  and  a  small  proportion  of  cotton  canvas  are  the  rags  used ;  they 
are  each  separately  sorted,  dusted  out,  washed  in  engines,  bleached  with  chlorine 
solution,  and  emptied  into  drainers.  The  bleached  pulp  is  mixed  in  beaters  furnished 
with  zigzag  plates,  washed,  reduced,  colored,  and  emptied  into  stutf-chests. 

The  paper  is  made  on  a  cylinder  machine  with  four  copper  30-inch  dryers,  and 
at  a  speed  of  over  100  feet  per  minute.  Copper  dryers  are  used  because  the  paper 
would  stick  to  iron  ones. 

As  it  is  indifferent  on  which  side  the  tissue-paper  is  in  contact  with  the  presses, 
if  we  only  succeed  in  passing  it  through  them,  and  as  it  would  also  be  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  take  it  in  the  ordinary  manner  by  hand  from  the  wet-felt  to  the 
press-felt — these  felts  are  disposed  so,  that  the  web  passes  in  a  straight  line  from  the 
first  to  the  second  press,  instead  of  entering  the  latter  from  the  forward  side. 

The  second  press  adjoins  the  dryers  closely,  leaving  no  space  between  them,  and 
on  its  passage  from  the  press  to  the  dryers  the  web  is  supported  by  a  wooden  roll. 
The  dry  paper  passes  through  one  set  of  three  calender  rolls,  is  then  trimmed  by 
slitters,  and  wound  on  an  old-fashioned  adjustable  reel.  The  diameter  of  this  reel 
must  be  made  larger  and  smaller  for  sheets  of  different  lengths,  and  it  is  built  as 
light  as  possible ;  the  paper  not  being  stiff  enough  for  a  cutting-machine,  is  taken 
from  this  reel  by  hand  and  cut  on  a  table. 

When*  the  stuff  has  been  adjnitted  to  the  machine,  and  the  web  appears  on  the 
wet-felt,  a  dry  sheet  of  paper  is  j)assed  through  the  press  with  it.  This  sheet  is 
thereby  closely  joined  to  the  wet  web,  and  serves  to  lead  it  through  the  other  parts, 
as  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  take  hold  of  the  new  wet  tissue-paper  without 
tearing  it. 

A  40-inch  cylinder  machine  of  this  kind  may,  if  running  fast,  produce  nearly 
1000  pounds  of  tissue-paper  in  twenty-four  hours. 


316 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


SECTION  III. 
Collar-Paper. 

258.  Its  Manufacture. — Paper  collars  are  used  in  such  large  quantities  that  several 
paper-mills  have  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  manufacture  collar-paper  as  a 
specialty. 

It  must  be  thick  and  spongy,  and  at  the  same  time  strong  and  flexible  enough 
to  be  bent  and  folded  without  breaking ;  it  is  therefore  composed  of  some  linen  and 
of  a  large  proportion  of  cotton  rags,  both  of  which  should  be  given  as  much  time  as 
possible  in  the  beaters,  in  order  to  obtain  the  full  length  of  the  fibres. 

Although  it  can  be  and  is  made  on  Fourdrinier  wires,  it  is  acknowledged  that 
cylinders  are  preferable,  and  one  of  the  best  mills  for  paper  of  this  kind  uses  a 
machine  with  three  forming-cylinders. 

The  difficulty  of  pressing  the  water  out  of  such  triple  sheets  is  overcome  by  sur- 
rounding the  upper  roll  of  the  first  press  with  a  short,  endless  wire-cloth ;  the  paper 
thus  passes  between  it  and  the  felt,  which  covers  the  lower  roll,. and  loses  water  on 
the  upper  side  as  well  as  on  the  lower  one.  It  is,  however,  not  to  be  understood  that 
the  wire-cloth  forms  a  jacket  for  the  press-roll,  it  being  considerably  wider  and  sup-" 
ported  by  two  carrying-rolls  above  the  press  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  only  in  contact 
with  the  press-roll  where  it  rests  on  the  paper. 

The  cotton  cloth  with  which  paper  collars  are  frequently  lined  is  mostly  pasted 
on  the  paper  by  the  collar  manufacturer,  but  in  a  paper-mill  at  Holyoke  it  is  attached 
to  it  on  the  paper-machine. 

The  cotton  cloth  in  rolls  is  suspended  above  the  machine,  joins  the  paper  before 
it  enters  the  presses,  and  passes  with  it  through  the  rest  of  the  machine. 


MANILLA  PAPEB. 


317 


SECTION  IV. 
Manilla  Paper. 

259.  Manilla  Grass. — Manilla  grass,  a  product  of  pastern  Asia,  is  extensively 
manufactured  into  ropes  and  bagging,  and  reaches  in  due  time,  like  rags,  the  paper- 
mill.  It  is  considered  the  strongest  of  all  known  fibres,  and  furnishes  the  well- 
known  tan-colored  paper. 

Common  tissue,  wrapping  paper,  tags,  and  all  kinds  of  bags,  from  the  ordinary 
ones  up  to  flour  bags,  are,  or  rather  have  been,  made  of  it,  until  the  consumption  of 
these  articles  had  increased  so  enormously,  that  the  supply  of  Manilla  stock  became 
entirely  insufficient,  and  new  materials  had  to  be  substituted  for  it. 

This  has  been  done,  and  found  so  profitable  that  the  larger  part  of  all  our  Ma- 
nilla papers  may  be  said  to  consist  rather  of  anything  else  than  Manilla  stock. 

260.  Jute. — Jute  is  another  East  India  fibre  similar  to  Manilla  grass,  which 
enters  largely  into  woven  goods  of  different  kinds.  Its  butt  ends,  as  well  as  all  the 
fibres  which  are  unsuitable  for  the  loom,  are  abandoned  to  the  paper-maker.  They 
are  virgin  fibres,  which  have  never  been  manufactured  into  anything  or  exposed  to 
any  wear  and  tear,  and  being  considerably  cheaper  than  Manilla  stock,  although  not 
so  strong  and  tough,  make  an  excellent  substitute  for  it. 

We  have  seen  mills  which  turn  out  from  5  to  6  tons  of  Manilla  paper  per  day, 
where  not  a  pound  of  Manilla  stock  could  be  found,  while  they  were  filled  with 
jute-butts. 

We  add  here  an  extract  from  an  article  on  jute  in  No.  7  of  the  Paper- Trade 
Journal. 

"  Jute  is  a  fibrous  plant  that  grows  to  a  thin  stalk,  varying  from  6  to  12  feet  in  height.  It  is  raised 
in  the  low  lands  of  the  East  Indies.  The  jute  plantations  are  operated  somewhat  on  the  system  of  rice 
plantations.  The  water  used  for  flooding  purposes  is  taken  from  the  rudely-constructed  reservoirs 
filled  by  the  melting  snow  on  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  The  plant  is  kept  growing  in  about  18  inches 
of  water,  which  prevents  the  parching  rays  of  a  tropical  sun  from  destroying  it.  When  the  stalk  has 
attained  its  growth,  it  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots  or  cut  off  near  the  root.  It  is  then  laid  out  in  bales 
like  wheat  or  rye,  and  prepared  for  market.  The  bark  is  first  removed ;  the  root  is  cut  off  where  it  is 
pulled  up  with  the  stalk,  and  where  the  root  is  not  originally  kept,  the  hard  lower  end  of  the  stalk  is 
cut  off  and  thrown  into  a  class  commercially  known  as  jute-butts.  The  remainder  is  then  assorted 
with  regard  to  length,  strength,  fineness,  and  lustre  of  the  fibre.  The  first  quality  is  a  beautiful,  clear, 
long  fibre,  much  of  it  resembling  in  appearance  blonde  hair.    This  is  especially  used  for  chignons, 


318 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAFEB  AND  BOABDS. 


but  is  also  used  in  Scotland  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  jute  cloths.  Canvas  for  linings,  cloths  for 
making  cheap  duster  coats,  and  a  variety  of  goods  of  that  description  are  made  in  Dundee,  Scotland, 
of  a  mixture  of  fine  jute  and  linen  or  cotton.  The  goods  into  which  finer  grades  of  jute  are  manu- 
factured in  Scotland  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  Many  kinds  are  sold  as  all  linen,  when  actually 
composed  of  jute  and  linen.  These  mixed  cloths  are  called  '  union  cloths.'  It  is  a  singular  fact  that 
we  are  not  now  making  any  of  them  in  this  country. 

"The  second  and  third  qualities  of  jute  are  determined  by  inferiority  of  length,  strength,  fineness,- 
and  color  of  the  fibre.  Some  planters  and  merchants  in  the  East  Indies  have  four  qualities  of  jute. 
It  will  thus  be  understood  wherein  the  fibres  commercially  known  as  jute  and  jute-butts  differ.  The 
one  is  the  stalk  itself,  which  is  all  fibre  except  the  thin,  scaly,  and  easily-removed  bark ;  the  other  is 
the  harder  and  coarser  fibre  near  the  root,  which  is  discolored  by  the  water  and  becomes  dark  after 
being  subjected  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  tropics. 

"Jute  rejections  are  simply  a  mixture  of  all  kinds  of  jute  scraps — frequently  fine  jute  that  gets 
tangled  till  unfit  for  sale  as  first,  *cond,  or  third  class,  and  frequently  pieces  of  butts ;  in  fact,  they  are 
exactly  what  the  name  implies — rejections  of  jute  and  jute-butts.  Those  who  use  jute  in  this  country 
will  not  buy  rejections.  They  are  used  the  same  as  butts  for  the  coarsest  matting,  for  heavy  bagging, 
and  for  paper-stock.    They  bring  in  the  market  about  the  same  price  as  butts." 

The  February  number,  1873,  of  the  Paper- Tirade  Reporter  contains  the  follow- 
ing interesting  article  on  jute-butts,  written  by  the  editor,  Mr.  Champion  Bissell : 

"  Paper  manufacture  has,  within  a  very  few  years,  received  three  distinct  and  noteworthy  im- 
pulses from  the  successive  discoveries  of  the  use  of  straw,  wood-pulp,  and  jute-butts.  All  these  have 
become  recognized  factors  of  paper  industry,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  how  this  industry  would  have 
prospered  without  them. 

"  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  that  as  civilization  progresses  and  the  populations  of  civilized  and 
enlightened  nations  become  denser,  rags  and  other  waste  materials  do  not  in  like  proportion  increase, 
or,  at  any  rate,  do  not  in  like  proportion  find  their  way  to  the  imper-mill.  Therefore  the  price  of  these 
materials  rises,  and  inventive  talent  immediately  looks  about  for  substitutes.  Therefore  England 
reached  out  to  Spain  and  took  esparto,  Germany  took  the  wood  of  trees,  and  the  United  States  took 
straw,  and  afterwards  the  lower  portion  or  '  butt'  of  the  Indian  jute-plant. 

"  How  it  happened  that  during  so  many  years,  while  paper-makers  were  consuming  old  jute  in  the 
shape  of  gunny  bagging,  burlap  bagging,  and  jute  rope,  no  one  ever  thought  of  using  the  raw  fibre 
itself,  is  one  of  those  mysterious  yet  undeniable  facts  that  baffle  all  investigation.  During  these  many 
years,  while  England  and  the  United  States,  and  in  a  less  degree  the  Continent,  were  importing  jute 
for  cloth  and  cordage  and  bagging  purposes,  it  was  made  a  condition  at  the  Calcutta  jute  packing 
houses  that  planters  and  factors  who  sent  jute  to  be  classified  and  packed  must  at  their  own  cost 
remove  the  butts.  These  butts,  from  6  to  12  inches  in  length,  being  of  precisely  the  same  nature  and 
fibre  as  the  rest  of  the  stalk,  but  of  less  pliancy,  owing  to  a  larger  adherence  of  bark,  were  regarded  as 
worthless,  and  while  the  world  was  clamoring  for  fibre,  were  thrown  upon  the  dunghill. 

"  Meanwhile,  gunny  bagging,  which  from  its  first  use  as  paper-stock  up  to  1861  had  vibrated 
between  1^  to  2^^  cents,  rose  to  8  cents,  and  in  1867  settled  to  4  cents,  where  it  remained  firmly.  And 
there,  and  probably  higher,  it  would  have  been  to-day  had  it  not  occurred  to  a  Calcutta  merchant  that 
if  jute  fibre  in  that  shape  was  so  valuable  as  paper-stock,  jute  fibre  in  another  shape  might  be  valuable 
also.  This  conclusion  seems  to  us  perfectly  natural,  and  we  can  never  cease  to  wonder  that  it  was  not 
earlier  arrived  at. 

"  The  statistics  of  butts,  as  laid  before  our  readers  monthly,  are  sufficiently  familiar.  The  crop  of 
jute,  though  large,  is  limited  definitely  to  the  wants  of  commerce,  and  the  annual  cutting  of  butts  from 


MANILLA  PAPEB. 


319 


the  foot  of  the  jute-stalk  is,  with  remarkable  recurrence,  about  200,000  bales  of  400  pounds  each.  It 
is  on  their  present  and  jjrospective  use  in  this  country  that  we  intend  more  particularly  to  treat  in  this 
article. 

"  At  present  they  are  principally  used  by  manufacturers  of  raanilla  paper  and  of  cotton  bagging. 
Dismissing  the  latter  mode  of  use  as  foreign  to  the  interest  of  the  paper  trade,  we  come  to  their  special 
use  as  a  fibre  for  manilla  paper.  In  this  mode  of  use,  after  being  boiled  in  a  rotary  boiler,  and  beaten 
from  four  to  eight  hours,  they  produce  a  smooth,  tolerably  strong,  tan-colored  paper,  or,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  bleach,  a  cream-colored  paper,  which  is  good  enough  for  a  wrapping  manilla  and  pattern-paper ; 
although  no  one  has  yet  succeeded  in  making  it  long-fibred  enough  for  bag-paper,  or  for  wrappers 
where  maximum  of  strength  is  desired.    In  this  latter  case,  the  manilla-fibre  stands  unrivalled. 

"  Just  so  far,  however,  as  butts  can  be  used  for  manilla  papers,  even  to  largely  mixing  with 
manilla  rope  for  making  bag-paper,  they  are  profitable,  because  no  fibre  reaches  the  mill  so  absolutely 
clean,  and  on  which  the  manufacturer  can  base  calculations  with  so  much  certainty.  The  bales  con- 
tain neither  dust,  moisture,  nor  foreign  material.  They  are  absolutely  jute  fibre  and  nothing  else  ;  and 
large  manufacturers  who  are  making  double  sets  of  contracts  at  once  in  this  market — that  is,  contracts  to 
deliver  paper  on  one  side  and  contracts  to  receive  butts  on  the  other — calculate  with  accuracy  the  cost 
of  the  paper  from  the  cost  of  the  butts.  There  is  no  other  class  of  stock — not  even  white  shavings, 
not  even  the  high  grades  of  white  rags — from  which  certain  results  so  surely  flow. 

"  AVe  do  not  mean  to  say  that  every  manufacturer  produces  the  same  quality  of  paper  from  a 
given  quantity  of  butts.  On  the  contrary,  different  modes  of  treatment  and  different  grades  of  bleach- 
ing lead  to  results  that  differ  by  20  pounds  in  100.  That  is  to  say,  some  manufacturers  produce  70 
pounds  of  paper  and  others  only  50  pounds  out  of  100  pounds  of"butts.  But  the  manufacturer  who 
produces  70  to-day  will,  with  like  processes,  produce  70  to-morrow,  and  so  on  indefinitely  ;  for  the 
stock  is  uniform,  and  so  the  results  of  one  day  furnish  a  perfectly  safe  basis  for  calculation  for 
the  next. 

"  The  bleaching  process  rapidly  reduces  the  product  of  butts.  Jute  fibre  contains  in  combination 
a  large  quantity  of  coloring  matter.  Jute-butts  contain  more  of  this  than  gunny  bagging  contains, 
although  the  bagging  is  jute  fibre.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  gunny  bagging  is  more  or  less 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  which  act  upon  its  surface  as  a  bleaching  agent.  Chlorine  gas 
aided  by  water  combines  with  this  vegetable  coloring  matter,  which  in  the  jute  fibre  exists  to  a  large 
extent,  and  destroys  it  as  weight  in  the  fibre,  the  chlorine  and  the  atoms  of  coloring  matter  passing  off 
together.  Now,  these  atoms  of  coloring  matter  are  a  noticeable  proportion  of  the  fibre,  and  therefore 
the  more  highly  we  bleach  the  less  weight  we  produce.  Careful  experiments,  undertaken  at  our 
request  by  manufacturers,  indicate  that  of  a  highly  bleached  paper  we  can  produce  50  pounds  from  100 
pounds  of  butts.  This  product,  however,  with  the  aid  of  wood-pulp  and  clay,  can  be  increased  very 
materially. 

"And  this  leads  to  the  second  part  of  our  subject,  namely,  the  prospective  use  of  jute-butts.  It  is 
not  likely  that  men  will  forever  go  on  reading  newspapers  and  books  printed  on  perfectly  white  paper. 
The  human  race  is  in  the  habit  of  committing  many  popular  and  inexplicable  follies;  among  these  is 
the  folly  of  reading  by  means  of  black  letters  imprinted  upon  a  white  surface.  The  contrast  of  black 
and  white  is  not  only  disagreeable,  but  dangerous  to  the  eye ;  and  oculists  are  agreed  that  it  is  one 
cause  of  the  early  decay  of  the  eyesight  among  reading  nations.  But  whether  we  use  black  or  blue 
for  printers'  ink,  we  ought  to  use  buff,  or  yellow,  or  kindred  colors  for  the  groundwork.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  nearly  all  press-writers,  who  from  necessity  write  a  great  deal  at  night,  use  buff  or 
manilla  paper.  And  the  reason  why  they  use  it  to  write  on  is  a  good  reason  why  we  should  use  it  to 
read  from,  namely,  that  it  is  more  wholesome  for  the  eyesight. 

"Artificial  colors  are  expensive,  and  after  we  have  once  bleached  a  pulp  white,  it  costs  at  least  a 
cent  a  pound,  and  often  more,  to  color  paper.  But  if  we  use  jute-butts  to  produce  a  paper  on 
which  to  imprint  types,  we  save  two  costly  processes,  namely,  bleaching  the  pulp  white,  and  then  add- 


320 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPEB  AND  BOARDS. 


ing  an  artificial  color.  Bleach  the  paper,  of  course,  we  must ;  but  only  to  the  extent  necessary  to  pro- 
duce an  agreeable  buff  color ;  then  we  have  a  smooth,  speckless  sheet  of  paper,  and  all  that  is  needed 
is  that  some  great  newspaper  shall  set  the  fashion  of  using  it. 

"  At  the  threshold  of  fashion,  science  must  pause.  Medical  science  for  a  century  has  been  power- 
less to  abolish  the  corset,  which  physiologists  say  is  a  woman's  worst  enemy;  and  this  impotency  of 
science  happens  because  coi^sets  are  the  fashion.  So  white  paper  is  the  fashion,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
our  forefathers,  not  having  bleaching  powders,  used  as  clean  stock  as  possible  for  book-paper,  and  thus 
produced  a  whitish  paper  which  ivas  the  fashion,  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  a  perfectly  white  paper, 
which  is  the  fashion.  How  long  it  will  take  to  educate  the  popular  taste  to  our  real  optical  needs  is  a 
question.    The  five  great  New  York  daily  morning  newspapers  could  do  it  in  a  few  months. 

"  But  whether  this  result  comes  sooner  or  later,  it  is  a  great  advance  in  our  paper  industry  to  have 
added  72,000,000  pounds  of  clean  fibre  to  our  yearly  stock  in  process  of  manufacture.  This  fibre,  we 
think,  is  destined  to  be  always  cheaji,  probably  never  rising  above  3  cents  a  pound,  and,  as  such,  it 
will  be  an  important  contribution  to  the  prosperity  of  the  American  paper-maker." 

261.  Process  of  Manufacturing. — Both  manilla  and  jute  are  boiled  in  rotaries,  but 
some  experienced  manufacturers  prefer  for  jute-butts  tubs  constructed  like  those 
described  for  old  paper  and  represented  by  Fig.  118.  They  claim  that  the  revolving 
motion  of  the  boilers  injures  the  jute  fibre,  and  that  slow  treatment  with  a  moderate 
temperature  is  preferable  to  quick  work  with  a  high  pressure  of  steam. 

Whether  they  are  boiled  in  rotaries  or  in  tubs,  both  manilla  and  jute  must  be 
treated  with  a  liberal  quantity  of  milk  of  lime ;  from  15  to  25  pounds  of  lime  per  100 
of  raw  material  should  be  sufficient,  but  some  manufacturers  use  as  much  as  50  poimds 
of  lime  for  100  of  jute.  If  manilla  or  jute  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
like  straw,  its  fibres  may  be  obtained  pure ;  it  can  then  be  easily  bleached  and  worked 
into  white  paper. 

If  an  ordinary,  rather  dark-looking  manilla-paper  is  to  be  made,  the  pulp  is 
washed  and  beaten  ready  for  the  machine  in  one  engine. 

By  bleaching  the  j^ulp  in  the  washing-engine,  and  emptying  it  into  drainers,  the 
color  can  be  much  improved,  and  a  light  buff-colored  paper  is  obtained. 

The  bed-plate  on  which  the  largest  quantity  of  this  pulp  can  be  ground  in  a  day, 
is  usually  given  the  preference ;  manilla  paper-mills  are,  therefore,  the  best  customers 
for  zigzag  and  similar  plates.  Manilla  grass  will  furnish  strong  paper,  even  if  it  be 
beaten  quick  and  short,  but  the  weaker  jute  should  remain  a  much  longer  time  in  the 
engine,  if  it  be  desired  to  make  a  paper  which  resembles  the  former  in  strength  as  well 
as  in  appearance. 

It  is  questionable  whether  Fourdrinier  or  cylinder  machines  should  be  used,  and 
both  kinds  can  be  seen  in  manilla  mills.  Many  experienced  paper-makers  contend 
that  paper  made  on  a  double,  or  two-cylinder  machine,  is  stronger  than  that  of  the 
same  thickness  made  on  a  Fourdrinier  machine. 

It  is  true  that  the  fibres  on  a  Fourdrinier  wire  intertwine  and  felt  themselves  in 
all  directions,  while  they  are  laid  lengthways  only  on  cylinders  ; .  but  if  a  heavy  paper 
is  on  the  wire,  and  we  imagine  it  horizontally  split  in  two  sheets  of  equal  thickness, 


MANILLA  PAPER. 


321 


the  lower  portion,  resting  on  the  wire,  must  be  much  better  made  than  the  upper  one. 
The  paper  made  on  two  cylinders  consists  of  two  equally  well-made  halves,  and  per- 
haps makes  up  thereby  for  the  constitutional  inferiority  of  the  cylinder  j^aper  as 
compared  with  that  made  on  a  Fourdrinier  machine. 

A  spot  of  grease  or  paint  on  a  Fourdrinier  wire  will  make  a  thin  place  or  a  hole 
in  the  paper  at  every  turn,  while  the  faults  caused  by  the  deficiencies  of  one  cylinder 
are  on  double-cylinder  machines  covered  by  the  paper  from  the  other  one. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  heavy  manilla  paper  on  the  wire-cloth,  because  the  pulp  is 
always  long  and  slow,  and  can  only  with  difficulty  be  deprived  of  its  water.  Thick 
manilla  papers,  such  as  are  used  for  flour  bags,  are  therefore  generally  ran  over 
machines  with  two  or  three  forming  cylinders. 

262.  Bogus  Manilla  Paper. — The  good  qualities  of  real  manilla  paper  have  made 
it  such  a  favorite  with  the  public  that  the  paper-makers  have  found  it  to  their  interest 
to  give  to  common  wrapping  paper  as  much  as  possible  the  same  color  and  appearance. 

A  cheap  article  of  such  bogus  manilla  is  made  of  waste  or  old  wrapping-paper 
and  straw,  colored  with  Venetian  red  in  the  engine;  sometimes  a  small  portion  of 
bagging,  or  of  other  hard  stock,  is  added,  but  the  bulk  of  it  consists  of  old  paper  and 
straw  only. 


41 


322 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOABDS. 


SECTION  V. 
Tobacco  Paper. 

263.  Its  Manufacture. — The  smoke  of  the  paper,  wherewith  cigarettes  are  covered, 
mingles  with  that  of  the  tobacco ;  it  is  therefore  natural  that  attempts  should  have 
been  made  to  manufacture  it  of  tobacco  instead  of  rags.  An  article  of  this  kind  has 
been  successfully  made  in  large  quantities  in  the  following  manner : 

Tobacco  stems,  otherwise  a  worthless  material,  were  boiled  in  such  tubs  as  are 
used  for  waste  paper,  without  having  been  previously  cut  or  dusted.  The  water  used 
for  boiling  contained  lime  in  solution  (not  as  milk),  and  was  perfectly  clear,  and  as 
one  thousand  pounds  of  water  can  only  dissolve  about  one  pound  of  lime  (see  page 
26)  very  little  of  the  latter  was  required. 

The  boiled  stems  were  beaten  in  an  engine  with  about  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  manilla 
half-stuff,  to  which  the  extract  of  the  tobacco  stems,  obtained  from  the  preceding  boil- 
ing operation,  had  to  be  added  instead  of  water.  This  juice  gave  to  the  paper  the 
desired  tobacco  flavor,  while  the  manilla  fibres  gave  it  strength  enough  to  run  over  a 
paper  machine  in  the  ordinary  manner.  It  burned,  when  dry,  with  a  white  ash,  like 
a  tobacco  leaf,  which  it  also  resembled  closely. 


SECTION  VI. 
Paper  from  Cotton  Waste, 

264.  Systems  of  Manufacturing. — A  small  proportion  only  of  cotton  is  lost  while 
it  is  made  into  thread,  but  the  quantities  consumed  by  the  civilized  world  are  so 
enormous,  that  the  waste  is  sufficient  to  supply  many  paper-mills. 

It  is  sorted  according  to  its  origin  into  several  qualities,  the  lowest  of  which  are 
the  sweepings  of  the  mills. 

The  principal  difficulty  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  cotton  waste  is,  to  get 


PAPER  FBOM  COTTON  WASTE. 


323 


rid  of  the  numerous  impurities,  and  especially  of  the  cotton-seeds.  Many  paper- 
makers  who  have  succeeded  in  making  good  paper  from  cotton  waste,  keep  their 
methods  secret,  but  enough  is  known  to  give  a  general  outline  of  the  operations. 

The  waste  is,  like  rags,  passed  through  cutters,  and  carried  by  aprons  into 
thrashers  or  devils,  which  beat  out  its  impurities  by  violent  action,  and  permit  them 
to  escape  through  coarse  wire-cloth  or  grates.  It  is  impossible  to  make  clean  pulp  if 
this  part  of  the  operations  is  not  conducted  in  a  thorough  manner. 

To  eliminate  from  the  cotton  fibres  all  foreign  substances,  especially  the  grease 
and  the  shells  of  cotton-seed,  the  waste  must  be  boiled  like  straw  in  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  although  with  a  much  weaker  one.  By  this  operation,  which  is  mostly 
carried  on  in  rotary  boilers,  every  part  of  the  waste,  except  the  cotton  fibres,  or 
cellulose,  is  dissolved,  but  yet  not  thoroughly  enough  for  the  production  of  fine  paper. 

The  paper-makers  who,  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  first  used  cotton  waste, 
packed  the  contents  of  each  boiler,  after  they  had  been  emptied,  and  stored  them  in  a 
room  provided  for  the  purpose.  The  waste,  being  thus  closely  confined  and  moist, 
was  given  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  putrid  fermentation  ;  and  the  decomposition, 
which  the  fatty  and  other  extraneous  matters  thereby  underwent,  was  assisted  by  the 
presence  of  soda ;  the  whole  mass  became  heated  as  the  transformation  progressed  and 
gradually  cooled  down  again,  as  the  most  susceptible  material  became  exhausted. 
These  changes  were  carefully  watched,  and  when  the  mass  showed  by  a  decrease  of 
the  previously  elevated  temperature,  that  the  process  was  finished,  it  was  taken  to  the 
engines,  washed  and  bleached  like  rags,  and  worked  into  good  print  and  book-paper. 

This  method  was  quite  successful,  but  as  the  process  of  fermentation  required 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days,  it  has,  like  the  process  of  rotting  rags,  which  it  resembles, 
been  superseded  by  boiling  in  rotaries. 

After  having  been  boiled  with  caustic  soda,  the  waste  is  at  present  washed  in  an 
engine  and  emptied  into  drainers.  In  some  mills  it  is  taken  from  the  drainers  and 
dried  in  a  centrifugal  cloth-wringer,  of  the  kind  shown  in  Fig.  43. 

The  bands  of  dry  pulp  which  the  latter  furnishes,  are  passed  through  a  picker, 
which  tears  them  into  shreds,  and  then  put  a  second  time  into  a  rotary  boiler,  where 
they  are  this  time  probably  treated  w^ith  lime.  After  this  second  boiling  the  waste 
is  ready  to  be  bleached  in  the  engine,  or,  as  is  done  in  one  prominent  mill,  with 
chlorine  gas. 

The  quantity  of  paper,  yielded  by  cotton  waste,  varies  from  30  to  50  per  cent., 
according  to  its  quality  and  treatment.  Excellent  blotting-paper  is  made  of  it,  and 
we  have  seen  very  good  surface-sized  flat-cap,  of  which  it  formed  the  principal  part. 


324 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOAEDS. 


SECTION  VII. 
Boards. 

265.  Binders'  Boards. — Boards  are  used  in  large  quantities  by  bookbinders,  but 
their  appearance  is  entirely  changed,  before  they  go  forth  as  book  covers  from  their 
workshops.  Fine  paper  or  cloth  is  pasted  on  their  surface,  and  the  color  of  the  origi- 
nal boards  cannot  be  seen. 

It  is,  therefore,  indifferent  what  stock  these  boards  are  made  of,  provided  they  be 
thick,  strong,  and  stiff ;  the  waste  of  other  mills,  waste  paper,  clay,  and  other  cheap 
materials,  enter  largely  into  board-pulp.  Bagging  or  rope  serves  as  hard-stock,  and 
the  whole  mass  is  simply  beaten  in  the  engine  and  emptied  into  stuff-chests. 

The  machine  on  which  boards  are  nearly  altogether  made  in  this  country,  is  the 
first  part  of  a  cylinder  machine,  represented  by  Figs.  92  and  93.  The  upper  press- 
roll  is  of  wood,  instead  of  iron ;  its  circumference  must  be  of  exactly  the  length  of 
one  or  two  boards,  and  two  grooves  pointing  to  the  axe,  and  parallel  with  it,  divide  it  in 
halves.  The  wet  paper,  coming  from  the  cylinder,  is  allowed  to  wind  up  on  this  roll, 
until  it  has  the  thickness  required  for  the  boards. 

Every  additional  layer  of  paper  which  is  wound  up,  interposes  the  thickness  of 
one  sheet  between  the  two  rolls,  and  raises  the  upper  one  as  much,  until  it  has 
ascended  high  enough  to  reach  with  the  top  part  a  small  iron  roll,  which  is  connected 
by  means  of  a  sj)ring  with  a  little  bell,  thus  causing  the  latter  to  ring  until  the 
attendant  has  removed  the  boards,  and  the  roll  has  sunk  back  to  its  original  position. 
This  simple  piece  of  mechanism  is  fastened  to  one  of  the  side-frames  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  the  small  iron  roll  (of  about  3  inches  diameter  and  \  inch  face)  comes  in 
contact  with  the  press-roll  only  near  one  of  the  ends,  which  is  never  occupied  by  the 
boards,  and  the  thickness  of  the  boards  can  be  regulated  by  setting  the  fork,  in  which 
the  small  roll  is  suspended,  higher  or  lower,  and  holding  it  with  a  set-screw. 

As  soon  as  the  ringing  of  the  bell  indicates  that  the  boards  have  reached  the 
required  thickness,  an  attendant  (usually  a  boy)  passes  a  knife  through  the  grooves 
all  across  the  roll.  The  knife,  being  thus  guided,  cannot  fail  to  cut  the  boards 
square,  and,  after  having  passed  through  the  press  again,  the  latter  are  easily  taken 
off  and  spread  flat  on  a  table.  This  table  is  fastened  to  the  fi'ames  at  about  the 
height  of  the  top  of  the  lower  press-roll,  and  as  near  to  it  as  possible. 

One  machine  of  this  kind  can  furnish  from  1  to  2  tons  of  boards  in  twenty-four 
hours,  according  to  its  width. 

The  wet  boards  are  in  most  cases  dried  in  the  open  air  by  being  simply  laid  out 
on  a  grass-plot — a  system  which  may  answer  for  small  mills,  but  which  is  not  reliable 


BOAEDS. 


325 


enough  for  larger  establishments,  where  the  large  amount  of  labor  and  capital 
employed  cannot  be  permitted  to  be  dependent  on  the  weather. 

266.  W.  0.  Davey  &  Sons' Board-Mill. — This  establishment  is  situated  on  Jersey 
City  Heights,  opposite  New  York  City ;  it  is  believed  to  be  the  largest  manufac- 
tory of  binders'  boards  in  this  country — perhaps  in  the  world — and  the  superiority 
of  its  products  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  they  are  always  in  demand  at  the  highest 
market  price,  and  preferred  to  ordinary  or  country-made  boards,  even  at  an  advance 
of  from  25  to  50  per  cent. 

The  proprietors  have,  with  commendable  liberality,  given  to  the  author  an 
opportunity  of  investigating  personally  their  process  of  manufacturing,  of  which  a 
description  will  be  found  in  the  following  lines : 

The  mill  is  driven  by  steam-power  only,  and  receives  its  whole  supply  of  water 
from  the  Jersey  City  water-works. 

The  refuse  of  the  oakum  factory,  which  forms  part  of  the  establishment,  and 
tarred  ropes,  which  cannot  otherwise  be  utilized,  make  up  the  hard-stock. 

The  ropes  are  cut  into  small  pieces  in  a  machine  which  is  in  every  respect  like 
those  used  in  machine-shops  for  cutting  sheet  iron.  A  stationary  knife,  about  one  foot 
wide,  is  fastened  upright  in  a  solid  cast-iron  frame,  and  another  similar  knife  moves 
up  and  down  and  meets  it  like  scissors. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  raw  materials,  tarred  or  untarred,  are  furnished  to  the 
engines  in  their  original  state,  without  having  been  subjected  to  any  boiling ;  the  ex- 
pense of  that  operation,  as  well  as  the  unavoidable  loss  of  fibres  connected  with  it,  being 
saved,  because  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  fibres  should  be  extracted  perfectly  pure. 

Some  ropes  are,  however,  so  hard  that  they  cannot  be  reduced  in  the  engine 
without  having  previously  been  softened,  and  they  are  boiled  in  a  rotary  with  lime 
and  with  the  waste-water  from  the  board-machines,  which  has  for  this  purpose  been 
pumped  into  receivers  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mill.  The  tar,  with  which  many  of 
the  ropes  are  impregnated,  is  rather  desirable  than  objectionable. 

Waste-paper  and  boards  of  the  lowest  grades,  previously  soaked,  but  not  boiled, 
in  water,  form  a  portion  of  the  stock ;  they  are  furnished  to  the  beaters  with  the  ropes 
and  ground  into  pulp. 

The  stock  is  not  washed  in  the  engines,  but  only  ground  on  solid  elbow-plates, 
which  are  set  in  an  improved  manner.  A  patent  for  this  improvement  was  granted, 
on  September  5th,  1871,  to  Edward  Wilkinson,  of  Paterson,  who  assigned  it  to  W. 
O.  Davey  &  Sons ;  and  the  following  extract  from  the  patent-s2:)ecifications,  with  the 
Figs.  126  and  127,  explains  the  invention : 

"  Fig.  126  is  a  plan  view  of  my  improved  apparatus,  and  Fig.  127  is  a  transverse  section  on  the 
line  y  y  of  Fig.  126.  ^ 
"  Similar  letters  of  reference  indicate  corresponding  parts. 

"  I  propose  to  have  a  metal  box  a  fitted  in  the  bed-frame  B  of  the  engine  immediately  under 
the  cylinder,  which  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  c,  for  holding  the  case  d  in  which  the  cutters  e  are 
confined,  the  sides  of  said  box  being  slightly  wider  apart  at  one  end  and  bottom  than  at  the  other  end 


326 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPEE  AND  BOABDS. 


Fig.  126. 


and  top,  so  that  the  case  d,  which  is  correspondingly  fitted,  will  wedge  in  tight  when  shoved  in  snugly 
from  one  end.  The  cutters  are  fitted  to  bars  g  placed  in  the  bottom  of  case  d  transversely,  and  having 
temper-screws  h  screwing  through  them  down  upon  the  bottom  of  the  case  to  raise  or  lower  them. 
The  cutters  are  also  confined  between  the  cross-bars  i,  which  hold  them  to  the  work  while  being 

adjusted  up  or  down.  This  arrangement  admits  of 
applying  a  set  of  cuttere  and  removing  them  in  the 
most  ready  manner,  so  that  but  little  time  need  be 
lost,  as  in  the  case  with  the  rude  apparatus  hereto- 
fore used,  which  requires  many  hours  of  laborious 
work  to  shift  and  adjust  the  cutters.  I  propose  to 
employ  two  or  more  cases  d  and  sets  of  knives,  so 
that  when  one  set  gets  dull  and  is  taken  out  another 
can  be  readily  put  in.  If  the  case  D  be  difficult  to 
start  when  wedged  in,  a  bar  K  and  screw  L  may  be 
employed  for  the  purpose,  the  screw  passing  through 
the  said  bar,  which  is  placed  against  the  end  of  box 
A  and  screwing  into  case  D." 

Messrs.  W.  O.  Davey  &  Sons  make 
both  the  outer  stationary  box  and  the 
inner  movable  one  of  cast  iron  ;  they  use 
blocks  of  the  ordinary  elbow-plates,  in 
which  the  channels  for  the  reception  of 
the  cross-bars  g  are  planed  out,  while  the 
ribs  I  of  the  case  d  are  cut  so  that  the 
plates  will  fit  exactly  into  the  openings. 

The  advantages  gained  by  this  ar- 
rangement are : 

Quick  and  easy  exchange  of  the 
plates,  as  claimed  in  the  specifica- 
tions, and  the  certainty  that  they 
will  always  occupy  the  same  posi- 
tion. 

The  facility  with  which  the  plates 
can  be  set  higher  up  when  worn 
down,  by  means  of  the  screws  h  h. 

Wooden  keys  or  boards  are 
usually  placed  under  the  plates 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise 
them ;  and  it  is  claimed  by  the  in- 
ventor that  the  latter  may,  owing 
to  the  elasticity  of  the  wood,  have  a  very  slight  up  and  down  movement,  while  the 
use  of  the  rigid  iron  screws  h  excludes  this  possibility. 

The  engines  are  emptied  into  stuff-chests,  which  supply  three  cylinder-machines, 
on  which  the  pulp  is  transformed  into  boards  of  almost  any  thickness.    These  ma- 


FiG.  127. 


BOABDS 


327 


chines  differ  from  those  described  in  the  preceding  article  265  only  by  having,  in  the 
place  of  a  fan-pump,  a  lifter-wheel,  the  buckets  of  which  are  filled  while  passing 
through  a  trough  wherein  the  lower  j)art  of  the  wheel  is  immersed,  and  discharged 
into  a  spout,  from  which  the  water  returns  to  the  vat  and  screen. 

These  wheels  move  slowly,  require  little  power,  and,  being  open  and  accessible  in 
all  their  parts,  cannot  be  obstructed  like  fan-pumps ;  but  they  will  not  remove  the 
water  from  the  interior  of  the  forming-cylinder  so  fast,  and  consequently  not  keep  it 
so  low  as  the  latter. 

The  wet  boards  are  by  artificial  means  deprived  of  the  larger  portion  of  their 
water,  and  the  balance  only  is  evaporated  in  the  open  air,  or  by  warm  air  under 
cover. 

When  first  taken  from  the  machine,  the  boards  are  set  up  in  straight  piles,  alter- 
nating with  one  sheet  of  felt  for  every  two,  three,  or  four  boards — according  to  their 
thickness — on  the  platform  of  a  hydraulic  press. 

The  pressure  applied  to  this  pile  is  increased  as  long  as  considerable  quantities 
of  water  escape,  but  not  sufficiently  to  crush  the  boards,  the  operation  lasting 
altogether  but  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  They  are  next  put  into  a  heater,  the  con- 
struction of  which  will  be  understood  from  the  following  description  : 

About  twenty  flat,  hollow  plates,  formed  of  two  sheets  of  iron  or  cojoper,  about  2 
feet  by  10  wide,  and  joined  together  at  the  edges,  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position 
above  each  other,  like  the  steps  of  a  stairway,  leaving  less  than  2  inches  space 
between  them,  and  projecting  beyond  the  next  plate  above  about  2  inches. 

Exhausted  steam  from  the  engine  enters  each  of  these  hollow  plates  at  one  of  the 
back  side  corners,  and  leaves  at  the  other  corner  on  the  same  side. 

The  short  pieces  of  pipe,  through  which  the  steam  enters  and  departs,  rest  on 
iron  frames,  and  serve  as  journals,  on  which  the  hollow  plates  can  be  turned  up  and 
laid  back  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  The  movable  joints  between  these  inlet  and 
outlet  pipes  and  the  stationary  ones,  which  bring  the  steam  and  carry  it  off,  consist 
of  short  pieces  of  rubber  hose,  slipped  over  the  corresponding  ends  of  both. 

The  sheets  are  not  flat ;  their  surfaces  are  covered  with  numerous  cavities  like 
those  of  the  heaters  in  dwellings,  which  not  only  increase  their  heating  capacity,  but 
also  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  boards. 

While  the  heater  is  empty,  the  plates  are  turned  up  a  little  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  circle,  reclining  in  a  nearly  upright  position  against  the  frame,  but  when  boards 
are  to  be  dried,  and  some  have  been  spread  on  the  lowest  plate,  the  next  i)late  is  turned 
down  to  its  horizontal  position ;  boards  are  spread  on  it,  and  so  on  until  all  the  jjlates 
are  laid  down  and  covered  with  boards.  Steam  is  then  admitted  during  more  or  less 
time,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  boards,  until  they  have  been  sufficiently  dried. 
After  less  than  one  hour  the  steam  is  usually  turned  off,  the  leaves  are  ojDcned  again, 
and  the  boards  removed. 

Four  such  heaters  are  used  for  the  product  of  the  three  board-machines. 

If  the  boards  were  allowed  to  dry  hard,  they  would  become  blistered ;  they  are 
therefore  removed  while  yet  moist,  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  carry  their  own  weight, 


328 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


or  to  retain  their  form  without  sujjport,  and  in  summer-time  they  are  spread  on  a 
grass-plot  near  the  mill.  Less  than  one  day  of  such  exposure  will  be  sufficient  to 
dry  them  if  the  weather  is  favorable. 

A  large  drying-house  is  also  provided,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  grass-plot  in 
bad  weather  and  especially  during  winter. 

The  lower  floor  is  partly  occupied  by  the  steam-boilers,  and  not  far  above  them 
a  framework  of  strips  of  wood  or  lath  fills  the  whole  space  between  the  four  walls. 
Another  framework  of  the  same  construction  forms  a  second  story  about  6  feet 
higher  up. 

They  are  both  strong  enough  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  men  who  walk  over  them, 
although  they  consist  of  no  more  wood  than  is  necessary  for  the  suspension  of  the 
boards. 

The  roof  is  supplied  with  ventilators  for  the  escape  of  the  moist  air.  If  the  dry- 
ing-room is  uniformly  heated,  as  it  should  be,  the  air,  which  is  loaded  with  moisture, 
being  heavier,  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  while  the  dry  air  rises  to  the  top,  and  escapes 
through  the  ventilators.  From  this  it  follows  that  no  air  should  be  allowed  to  escape 
from  the  top,  but  that  it  should  be  carried  off  from  the  lowest  parts  of  drying-rooms 
through  wide  chimneys  or  spouts,  which  reach  down  nearly  to  the  floor.  The  super- 
intendent, Mr.  Meyers,  has  tested  this  in  an  experimental  way  by  using  a  pipe  instead 
of  a  chimney,  and  found  the  theory  confirmed  by  the  issue  at  the  upper  end  of  air 
which  was  saturated  with  water  to  such  an  extent  that  it  appeared  like  a  dense  vapor. 

Hooks  of  galvanized  iron,  with  pointed  ends,  like  the  tenter-hooks  used  in  woollen 
mills,  are  driven  into  the  strips  of  wood  or  lath,  and  the  boards  are  hung  up  on  them 
by  one  corner. 

As  the  radiation  from  the  steam-boilers  does  not  furnish  sufficient  heat,  an  addi- 
tional -supply  is  provided  by  wrought-iron  steam  pipes,  many  rows  of  which  line  the 
walls  of  the  building. 

It  would  be  preferable  to  dispense  with  the  grass-plot,  and  dry  the  boards  by 
steam  during  the  whole  year,  but  as  a  temperature  of  about  100  degrees  is  kept  up 
in  the  drying-house,  this  would  be  too  severe  on  the  operatives  during  the  hot  sum- 
mer days,  when  open  air  drying  is  for  this  reason  resorted  to. 

The  boards,  after  having  been  dried  in  the  air  or  above  the  boilers,  are  ready  to 
be  calendered. 

The  production  of  the  whole  mill,  or  about  four  tons  of  boards  per  day,  are 
finished  with  one  pair  of  hollow  chilled  rolls  of  about  15  inches  in  diam-eter,  the  lower 
one  of  which  is  driven  by  spur-wheels.  Steam  is  admitted  through  the  journals  of 
both  rolls,  and  the  boards  are  passed  through  as  often  as  is  necessary  in  order  to  give 
them  a  good  surface,  one  or  two  passages  only  being  usually  required. 

This  process  of  calendering  resembles  somewhat  the  work  of  a  laundry ;  as  it  is 
indispensable  there  that  the  irons  should  be  heated  to  a  certain  degree  in  order  to  put 
a  good  surface  on  the  linen,  so  must  the  calender  rolls  be  heated  to  a  certain  degree 
if  the  boards  are  to  be  well  finished. 

The  rolls,  just  described,  are  cast  full ;  holes  of  3-inch  diameter  are  bored 


bOabds. 


329 


through  their  centres,  and  the  steam  enters  and  leaves  through  the  journal  on  the 
front  side ;  but  it  is  the  superintendent's  opinion  that  it  would  be  preferable  if  the 
steam  were  introduced  through  one  journal,  and  taken  off  through  the  other  one,  as 
the  rolls  could  then  probably  be  heated  to  a  higher  temperature. 

To  facilitate  the  action  of  the  calenders  the  boards  are,  before  being  passed 
through  them,  exposed  to  the  influence  of  steam,  until  their  surfaces  have  been  soft- 
ened enough  to  be  more  susceptible  to  the  pressure  of  the  rolls,  one  minute  of  such 
exposure  being  frequently  quite  sufficient.  They  are  to  that  end  set  upright  on  their 
edges  in  an  oblong  iron  box,  provided  with  a  false  bottom,  composed  of  wooden  slats, 
below  which  steam  is  introduced  as  soon  as  the  box  has  been  filled  and  the  cover  closed. 

The  steam-drying  apparatus  used  at  this  mill  and  described  in  the  foregoing 
lines,  although  made  of  iron  instead  of  copper  sheets,  causes  a  great  deal  of  expense. 
The  movement  of  the  plates  up  and  down  produces  a  heavy  strain  near  the  edges 
around  which  they  turn,  and  they  soon  wear  out  and  crack  in  those  places.  If  once 
broken  they  are  useless,  as  they  cannot  be  patched  well  enough  to  give  satisfaction.  The 
rubber  hose  which  forms  the  turning-joints  requires  frequent  renewal,  and  is  another 
source  of  expense.  Different  modes  of  construction  have  been  tried,  none  of  which 
have  given  as  much  satisfaction  as  the  one  which  is  used  at  present ;  but  we  have  no 
doubt  that  it  can  and  will  be  improved  upon  in  the  future.  All  the  steam  which 
escapes  from  the  engine,  is  consumed  in  these  dryers. 

Very  little  of  the  raw  materi-al  is  wasted,  as  it  undergoes  no  washing-operation. 

267.  Press-Boards. — Press-boards,  glazed  boards,  fullers'  boards,  and  pattern 
boards  are  names  which  indicate  the  various  uses  made  of  them ;  they  are  much 
thinner  than  binders'  boards,  but  tough  and  strong,  and  present  a  highly-polished 
glass-like  appearance. 

Any  stock  which  produces  good  manilla  paper  may  be  used  for  press-boards, 
and  they  are  like  other  boards  made  on  cylinders,  and  taken  wet  from  the  upper 
press-roll. 

Being  less  heavy  and  more  pliable  they  can  be  more  easily  dried  than  binders' 
boards.  We  have  seen  a  cast-iron  drying  cylinder  of  about  10  feet  diameter  used  for 
this  purpose.  A  canvas  felt  covers  its  entire  drying  surface,  with  the  exception  of  a 
short  open  space  at  a  convenient  height  from  the  floor,  where  the  boards  are  passed 
under  it,  and  taken  off"  after  they  have  made  a  sufficient  number  of  revolutions  with  the 
{ ylinder  to  be  in  the  desired  state  of  dryness,  the  open  space  not  being  wide  enough 
to  permit  them  to  drop  off  without  assistance.  The  surface  of  this  cylinder  is  not 
much  curved  for  the  length  of  one  board,  and  does  not  bend  it  sufficiently  to  injure  it. 

Press-boards  must  be  polished  until  their  surfaces  become  perfectly  glassy  and 
reflect  the  light.  We  have  seen  it  done  in  a  new  mill  very  effectually  by  means  of 
a  chilled  iron  or  steel  roll  of  about  10  inches  in  diameter  and  2  inches  face.  This  roll 
forms  the  lower  end  of  a  heavy  wooden  pendulum  of  about  10  feet  in  length,  and  irons 
the  board  under  it  by  bearing  on  it  with  all  the  weight  of  the  pendulum,  while  it  is 
swung  or  rolled  over  it  by  means  of  a  crank  and  a  wooden  connecting  lever.  The 

42 


330 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


wooden  platform,  on  which  the  boards  are  spread,  is  cut  out  in  a  circle,  the  centre  of 
which  is  the  axis  at  the  upper  end  of  the  pendulum  around  which  it  swings.  This 
excavation  is  several  feet  long,  and  covered  with  a  steel  plate,  over  which  the  boards 
are  gradually  pushed  by  a  female  attendant,  until  they  are  thoroughly  polished  by 
the  roll,  a  more  or  less  glazed  surface  being  obtained  by  moving  the  boards  through, 
slower  or  faster. 

This  is  a  rather  primitive  and  old  system  of  calendering,  but  the  boards  glazed 
by  it  are  of  excellent  quality.  Good  calenders  constructed  of  chilled  rolls  and  heated 
with  steam,  would,  however,  do  the  same  work  with  less  labor  and  time. 

268.  Straw  Boards. — Straw  boards  have  within  late  years  found  many  new  appli- 
cations, and  their  consumption  has  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that  a  number  of 
special  straw-board  mills  have  been  built,  and  are  fully  occupied.  They  were  formerly 
made,  like  rag  boards,  on  cylinder  machines,  and  dried  in  the  open  air,  but  this  system 
is  now  replaced  by  machines,  on  which  the  straw  boards  are  formed,  dried,  and  cut 
like  ordinary  paper.  Cylinder  machines,  with  from  two  to  six  forming-cylinders,  have 
been  used  for  this  purpose,  but  they  are  at  present  superseded  by  Fourdrinier  machines. 

To  make  very  thick  boards,  every  device  by  which  water  can  be  extracted  from 
the  paper,  while  it  is  being  formed,  has  to  be  used.  The  wire  must  be  long  and  sup- 
plied with  good  suction-boxes,  and  the  first  press  must  be  furnished  with  two  wet- 
felts,  one  running  as  usual  over  the  lower  roll  and  carrying  the  web,  and  the  other 
surrounding  the  upper  roll,  so  that  water  may  be  pressed  out  from  the  upper  as 
well  as  from  the  lower  side.  The  upper  felt  runs  through  a  wash-box,  upon  which 
several  pairs  of  wooden  rolls  are  mounted,  and,  being  alternately  soaked  in  water  and 
squeezed  by  the  rolls,  is  kept  so  clean  that  it  may  remain  at  work  for  weeks  without 
ever  being  removed  for  the  purpose  of  washing,  like  other  wet-felts.  The  application 
of  this  felt  and  wash-box  is  covered  by  a  patent,  issued  in  1865,  to  Scanlen,  Stine  & 
Ross,  and  it  is  believed  that  machine-dried  straw-boards  cannot  be  made  without  it. 

The  drying  part  consists  usually  of  from  twelve  to  twenty  3-feet  cylinders, 
disposed  in  two  tiers,  and  a  machine  of  this  kind  can  produce  straw  boards  of  nearly 
I  inch  thickness,  and  in  quantities  of  from  four  to  eight  tons  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  straw  is  boiled— in  the  same  manner  as  for  ordinary  straw  wrapping-paper 
— with  lime,  in  open  tubs,  and  taken  out  by  manual  labor.  Hoisting  arrangements 
have  been  tried  and  again  abandoned,  becaMse  it  is  considered  more  advantageous,  to 
wash  the  straw  and  deprive  it  of  the  larger  part  of  the  lime  while  it  is  taken  from 
the  tubs  with  hooks,  than  to  economize  some  of  the  labor. 

Large  quantities  of  straw  boards,  covered  with  white  or  colored  paper,  are  used 
for  paper  boxes,  and  some  manufacturers  now  line  the  boards,  while  they  are  run- 
ning over  the  paper-machine,  by  means  of  B.      Fields's  patent  lining-attachment. 

It  consists  of  a  number  of  rolls,  by  which  paste — taken  from  a  box  which  forms 
part  of  the  apparatus — is  applied  to  the  lower  side  of  a  web  of  white  or  colored  paper, 
as  it  is  wound  from  a  reel-shaft  and  conducted  to  the  dryers.  These  dryers,  nineteen 
in  number,  are  disposed  in  two  tiers,  the  web  of  boards  passing  alternately  over  a 


BOARDS. 


331 


lower  and  an  upper  one.  The  upper  cylinders  are,  however,  not  supplied  with  a  felt, 
which  would  prevent  the  paper  from  joining  the  boards  while  they  are  passing  over 
them.  A  platform  is  erected  above  the  dryer  preceding  the  last  one  of  the  upper  tier, 
and  a  boy  attendant,  who  is  stationed  there,  takes  the  lining  from  the  pasting 
apparatus — which  is  situated  above  the  machine,  but  within  his  reach — and  presses 
it  upon  the  web  of  boards  until  it  adheres  suiiiciently  to  be  pulled  through  without 
further  assistance.  The  boards  and  the  lining  travel  thus  together  over  the  last  three 
cylinders,  where  they  are  well  dried  and  united.  Two  rolls  of  paper  are  always  sup- 
plied to  this  attachment,  so  that  a  new  one  can  be  started  without  loss  of  time  as  soon 
as  one  is  wound  off. 

Numerous  pasting  machines  for  separate  boards  as  well  as  for  rolls  have  been 
invented  and  patented,  but  they  do  not  come  strictly  within  the  range  of  this  book. 

As  an  example  of  the  numerous  fields  of  industry,  in  which  straw-boards  will 
probably  be  used  in  the  future,  we  will  only  mention  railroad  car-wheels,  and  quote 
an  article  on  this  subject  from  the  Philadelphia  Press,  February  7th,  1873 : 

"It  is  stated  that  a  Connecticut  railroad  is  about  to  make  a  trial  of  the  so-called  paper  car-wheels. 
These  wheels  are  costly,  but  run  safely  and  easily ;  they  have  been  known  some  time  to  car-builders, 
but  their  introduction  into  general  use  has  been  })revented  by  the  expense.  Sheets  of  common  strawr 
paper  (boards)  are  forced  into  a  compact  mass  by  a  pressure  of  350  tons.  The  mass  of  paper  is  turned 
perfectly  round,  and  by  a  pressure  of  25  tons  a  hub  is  forced  into  a  hole  in  the  centre.  This  paper-wheel, 
by  a  pressure  of  250  tons,  is  next  forced  into  a  steel  tire  with  :^-inch  bevel  upon  its  inner  circumference. 
Two  circular  iron  plates  are  then  bolted  on  to  the  tire  to  keep  the  paper  filling  in  place.  By  this 
arrangement  the  steel  tire  rests  upon  the  paper  only,  and  partakes  of  its  elasticity.  It  is  claimed  that 
these  wheels  wear  longer  than  those  of  any  other  description,  injure  the  tracks  less,  an(|  run  y(ith  less 
noise." 

269.  Leather  Boards. — A  very  hard  variety  of  boards  is  manufactured  partly  from 
leather  clippings.  The  leather  is  for  this  jjurpose  cut  into  small  pieces  like  rags, 
reduced  in  the  engine  with  about  the  same  quantity  of  bagging  and  waste  paper,  and 
made  into  boards  on  a  cylinder  in  the  ordinary  manner.  If  the  pulp  has  been 
properly  treated  in  the  engine,  and  especially  if  the  boards  have  been  well  calendered, 
they  acquire  to  some  extent  the  appearance,  and  even  some  of  the  qualities  of  leather. 

Piette  recommends  that  the  leather,  after  it  has  been  sorted,  cleaned,  and  passed 
through  a  rag-cutter,  be  filled  in  baskets  or  bags,  and  suspended  for  about  a  week  in  the 
water  of  a  river,  until  even  the  hardest  black  leather  has  been  thoroughly  soaked  ;  it  is 
thereby  not  only  washed,  but  also  softened,  and  can  the  more  easily  be  reduced  in  the 
engine ;  and  to  complete  the  operation,  this  bath  is  to  be  followed  by  a  second  immer- 
sion for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  tub  filled  with  lukewarm  water,  made  slightly  alka- 
line with  soda  or  lime.  This  process  would  probably  be  found  too  slow,  and  might 
be  carried  out  more  quickly,  and  with  equally  good  effect,  in  some  washing-machine. 

Leather  requires  considerable  time  for  washing  and  grinding,  and  must  be  fre- 
quently stirred  with  a  paddle  to  prevent  it  from  settling  on  the  bottom  of  the  engine. 

Sizing  can  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  leather  contains  large  quantities  of  gelatine. 


332 


ON  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPEB  AND  BOABDS. 


SECTION  VIII. 
Roofing,  and  Building-Papee. 

270.  Roofing  Paper. — The  roofs  of  buildings  are  frequently  covered  with  paper 
which  has  j)reviously  been  impregnated  with  tar,  and  thus  made  water-tight. 

The  stock  used  in  the  composition  of  the  paper  must  be  of  a  porous  nature,  as  its 
quality  depends  principally  on  the  quantity  of  coal-tar  or  of  a  similar  substance  which 
it  can  absorb.  The  pulp  is,  therefore,  made  up  principally  of  woollen  rags,  mixed  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  hard  stock  to  give  it  the  necessary  strength.  Blown  cane  fibre 
has  also  been  found  to  improve  the  quality  of  roofing  paper. 

It  is  made  on  cylinder  as  well  as  on  Fourdrinier  machines. 

271.  Building  Paper  or  Building  Boards. — It  is  well  known  that  paper  is  a  very 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  if  applied  to  buildings,  will  prevent  the  outside  cold  or 
heat  from  communicating  through  it  with  the  interior. 

The  walls  of  a  great  many  dwelling-houses  in  the  United  States  are  therefore 
covered  with  paper  boards  either  inside  or  out ;  they  are  especially  useful  for  light 
frame  buildings,  to  the  outside  of  which  they  are  nailed,  and  then  covered  by  wooden 
weather-boards,  or  by  an  additional  brick  wall.  They  are  also  put  on  the  inside  of 
dwellings  instead  of  plaster,  and  their  usefulness  for  this  purpose  was  exemplified  in 
1871,  when  the  Rock  River  Paper  Company  papered,  immetliately  after  the  Chicago 
fire,  10,000  houses,  at  a  cost  of  $5  per  house.  These  dwellings  (16  by  20  feet),  each 
one  of  which  was  built  in  one  day,  provided  speedy  shelter  for  the  thousands  of  home- 
less inhabitants. 

The  jDrincipal  raw  material  of  which  they  are  manufactured,  is  straw,  usually 
mixed  with  some  of  the  lowest  grades  of  rags,  waste  paper,  cane  fibre,  and  with  a 
variety  of  chemicals,  the  application  of  which  to  building  boards,  in  many  cases  pro- 
tected by  patents,  has  mostly  for  its  object  to  make  the  boards  water  or  fire-proof,  or 
both. 

Building  boards  are  made  on  double-cylinder  or  Fourdrinier  machines,  and 
sold  in  rolls  like  hanging  and  roofing  paper,  and  although  a  comparatively  new 
article,  they  are  not  only  already  used  in  large  quantities,  especially  in  the  Western 
States,  but  promise  to  give  employment  to  many  additional  paper-mills. 


PAB  CHMENT-  PAP  EE. 


333 


SECTION  IX. 

Paechment-Papek. 

272.  Use  and  Preparation. — It  has  been  found  tliat  unsized  rag-paper  or  cellulose 
changes  its  nature,  if  it  is  for  a  short  time  immersed  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid  and 
then  again  well  washed ;  it  becomes  tough,  water-tight,  and  transparent,  like  animal 
parchment. 

This  discovery  has  been  utilized  in  Europe,  where  the  vegetable  parchment  is 
produced  in  endless  rolls  and  largely  used :  the  druggists  tie  it  over  bottles  whenever 
they  must  be  hermetically  closed ;  envelopes  for  the  transj^ortation  by  mail  of  valu- 
able papers  and  money  are  made  of  it ;  parchment  goblets  filled  with  water,  beer,  or 
wine,  are  sold  to  travellers  on  the  railroads,  &c. 

The  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  as  generally  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  parchment,  consists  of  2  volumes  of  acid  (SOsjHO)  and  1  volume  of  water  at  60 
degrees  Fahrenheit ;  the  paper  is  subjected  to  its  influence  for  a  sufficient  time  to 
be  parchmented  to  the  desired  degree,  then  again  washed  with  water,  and  lastly  with 
ammonia,  to  neutralize  any  remaining  traces  of  acid. 

If  the  paper  is  rolled  up  on  a  reel  and  slowly  conducted  through  a  trough  with 
the  acid  bath,  then  through  other  troughs  containing  water  and  ammonia,  and  lastly, 
over  a  set  of  dryers,  an  endless  sheet  of  parchment  can  be  made. 

To  explain  its  nature  and  formation,  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  reproduce  here 
an  article  written  in  German  by  T.  Ferwer,  and  translated  by  J.  H.  Tieman,  for  the 
'  Paper- Trade  Reporter,  No.  19  : 

"  The  only  account  we  have,  so  far,  in  relation  to  the  chemical  composition  of  vegetable  parch- 
ment is  from  Prof.  A.  W.  Hoffman.  According  to  his  views,  the  action  of  the  sulphuric  acid  causes  a 
new  arrangement  of  the  molecules,  thereby  changing  the  paper  into  a  new  substance,  with  entirely 
new  properties.  I  have  for  a  long  time  doubted  the  correctness  of  this  theory.  Experiments  showed 
me  that  the  vegetable  parchment  is  an  unchanged  paper  in  which  the  fibres  are  united  by  a  small 
quantity  of  a  substance,  formed  by  the  action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  on  the  plant  fibres,  supposed  by 
some  chemists  to  be  pure  cellulose,  and  by  others  to  be  a  middle  substance  between  starch  and  cellu- 
lose, and  called  amyloid. 

"  In  order  to  make  this  amyloid,  which  thus  far  is  only  interesting  from  a  scientific  point  of  view, 
30  parts  by  weight  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (4  parts  acid  to  1  part  water)  are  added  to  1  part  of  loose 
cotton  ;  the  latter  dissolves  readily  in  the  acid,  and  in  about  thirty  seconds  forms  a  stiff,  gelatinous  mix- 
ture, which  gradually  becomes  more  liquid,  and  in  about  fifteen  minutes  becomes  of  the  consistency  of 
sugar  syrup.  When  this  mass  is  mixed  with  water,  a  white,  flocculent,  gelatinous  mass  separates,  in 
which  the  structure  of  the  cotton  can  no  longer  be  recognized.  If  the  acid  mixture  be  allowed  to 
remain  quietly  for  some  time,  it  changes  gradually  into  dextrin  and  sugar,  so  that  after  seven  or  eight 


334 


OJSr  SOME  CLASSES  OF  PAPER  AND  BOARDS. 


hours,  if  water  be  added,  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  flocculent  mass  separates.  Amyloid  comforts 
itself  with  acids,  alkalies,  chloride  of  zinc,  &c.,  the  same  as  ordinary  plant  fibre,  and  is  only  distin- 
guished from  it  by  its  shapelessness,  and  also  that  when  colored  blue  by  iodine,  it  may  be  decolorized 
by  simply  washing  with  water,  which  is  not  the  case  with  starch. 

"  In  combination  with  sufficient  water,  amyloid  has  a  pasty  appearance ;  when  spread  upon  glass 
it  dries  to  a  thin,  transparent,  tenacious  skin.  When  dried  on  paper  it  is  not  so  adherent,  and  may 
be  easily  removed  after  drying.  When,  however,  the  amyloid  is  precipitated  from  its  solution  directly 
on  to  the  paper,  as  occurs  in  the  formation  of  vegetable  parchment,  it  remains  inseparably  united  with 
the  fibres. 

"  Under  the  microscope,  a  piece  of  vegetable  parchment  shows  the  fibres  distinctly,  surrounded  by 
a  thin,  transparent  skin.  That  the  fibres  have  been  acted  on  by  the  acid  and  surrounded  by  a  coating 
of  amyloid,  there  can  be  no  doubt;  iodine  solution  turns  them  blue;  but  this  change  is  only  on  the  sur- 
face, for  even  the  fine  fibres  of  flax,  when  in  the  paper,  retain  their  form  unaltered. 

"  Having  now  considered  the  composition  of  vegetable  parchment,  the  formation  of  the  same  is 
readily  followed. 

"  When  unsized  paper  is  dipped  into  dilute  suljihuric  acid,  at  ordinary  temperature,  a  gelatinous 
coating  is  instantly  formed  on  the  surface,  and  the  same  thing  occurs  to  the  surface  of  the  fibres  in  the 
interior  of  the  paper  as  soon  as  the  acid  penetrates  to  them.  If  the  paper  is  now  taken  out  of  the  acid 
and  dipped  in  water  to  which  ammonia  or  caustic  soda  has  been  added,  the  further  action  of  the  acid 
is  suspended,  and  at  the  same  time  the  acid  compound  is  resolved  into  amyloid  and  sulphuric  acid;  the 
former  adheres  to  the  fibres  and  the  latter  is  removed  by  washing  in  water.  By  drying  the  paper, 
the  fibres  unite  with  the  amyloid  to  a  dense  mass,  which  is  parchment-paper.  The  adhesion  of  the  fibres 
during  the  drying  is  greatly  assisted  by  the  gelatinous  covering  on  the  surface  of  the  paper,  which 
readily  admits  the  escape  of  the  vapor  from  the  interior,  and  prevents  the  admission  of  the  air  which 
would  otherwise  replace  the  escaping  moisture.  This  is  also  the  cause  of  the  shrinking,  crumbling, 
and  transparency  of  the  parchment. 

"  It  is  thus  seen  that  in  order  to  make  a  dense  and  firm  parchment  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  every- 
thing which  would  cause  more  than  a  superficial  change  of  the  fibres;  especially  must  the  use  of  porous 
paper  be  avoided,  for,  though  it  might  yield  a  dense  parchment,  it  could  not  be  a  firm  product.  Ordi- 
nary cotton,  flax,  and  hemp  rags  are  too  porous  to  be  changed  into  parchment.  A  firm,  thin  cotton 
thread,  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  makes  a  much  stronger  substance  than  a  thread  twice  as  thick  if 
loosely  wound.  A  thin,  dense,  cotton  stuff",  when  pressed  before  being  treated,  in  order  to  bring  the 
fibres  into  as  close  contact  as  possible,  yields  a  substance  of  extraordinary  firmness,  which  may  in  many 
cases  be  substituted  for  thin  leather.  When  softened  by  rubbing  with  fat,  it  could  be  used  very 
extensively." 

Alexander  T.  Sheldon  has  received  a  patent  of  invention  for  an  improvement, 
which  consists  in  passing  the  paper  first  through  a  bath  of  alum,  then  through  another 
one  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  lastly  through  water,  &c.  The  alum  coats 
both  sides  of  the  paper,  and  the  concentrated  acid  acts  so  quickly  that  only  the  sur- 
faces of  the  paper  will  be  changed,  while  the  body  remains  intact.  The  object  is  to 
preserve  the  pliability,  opacity,  and  other  good  qualities  of  the  paper,  while  it  is 
at  the  same  time  made  water-tight. 

More  or  less  parclimented  paper  will  certainly  find  many  useful  applications  if 
it  is  once  introduced  and  manufactured  on  a  large  scale. 


Chapter  VL 

GENERAL  REMARKS  UPON  WASH- WATER,  POWER,  CONSTRUCTION,  LOCATION, 
CAPITAL,  MANAGEMENT,  AND  STATISTICS  OF  PAPER-MILLS. 


SECTION  1. 
Wash-AVater. 

273.  Its  Importance. — The  water  which  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  the  pulp, 
especially  for  washing  purposes,  is  called  ivash-water,  in  contradistinction  to  that  which 
only  drives  water-wheels  and  produces  power. 

To  perceive  its  great  importance  we  need  only  consider  the  quantity  which  is 
necessary  to  wash  from  400  to  500  pounds  of  rags  in  an  engine.  If  the  engine  is,  for 
example,  15  feet  long,  1\  feet  wide,  and  filled  about  2  feet  high,  it  will  hold,  taking 
the  round  ends,  backfall,  &c.,  into  consideration,  about  160  cubic  feet  or  1200  gallons, 
or  about  10,000  pounds  of  water — that  is,  about  twenty  times  the  weight  of  rags.  If 
enough  water  is  used  during  the  operation  of  washing  to  fill  the  engine  five  times, 
the  500  pounds  of  rags  will  be  brought  in  contact  with  6000  gallons,  or  one  hundred 
times  their  own  weight  of  water. 

This  quantity  may  yet  be  considerably  increased,  perhaps  doubled,  if  we  add  the 
water  which  is  used  in  boiling,  bleaching,  and  on  the  paper-machine. 

Every  pound  of  rags  is  therefore  liable  to  be  soiled  during  its  transformation 
into  white  paper  by  the  impurities  contained  in  100  to  200  pounds,  or  in  12  to  24 
gallons  of  water. 

These  impurities  are  of  two  kinds :  those  which  are  only  suspended,  floating,  or 
mechanically  mixed,  and  others  fully  dissolved.  In  most  cases  the  latter  cannot 
be  seen,  and,  to  make  a  distinction,  may  be  called  chemical  impurities. 

274.  Mechanical  Impurities. — If  a  river  or  a  creek  flows  through  soil  composed  of 
clay  or  any  other  soft  material,  it  will  be  clear  as  long  as  nothing  disturbs  its  quiet 
and  even  flow ;  but  as  soon  as  rain  falls,  some  of  the  infinitely  small  and  light  com- 
ponents of  the  earth  are  bodily  carried  along  by  it,  and  the  stream  begins  to  look 
colored  and  dirty.  All  these  mechanical  impurities  are  visible  separate  bodies,  and 
settle  on  the  bottom  if  they  have  time  and  tranquillity  so  to  do. 

Mills  which  use  surface  streams  as  wash- water  should  therefore  be  supplied  with 
artificial  lakes  or  settling  ponds,  of  as  large  dimensions  as  the  locality  will  permit. 


336 


GENERAL  EEMAEKS. 


The  water  is  admitted  into  these  reservoirs  when  it  is  clear  and  shut  oS  when  muddy; 
they  must  therefore  be  large  enough  to  hold  many  days'  supply. 

If  a  large  settling  pond  cannot  be  had,  the  mechanical  impurities  must  be  sep- 
arated by  filtration.  The  cheapest  and  most  permanent  materials  for  filters  are 
gravel  and  sand.  They  are  hard,  principally  quartz,  and  their  round  form  prevents 
them  from  forming  a  mass  so  compact  that  water  cannot  pass  through,  while  they 
present  at  the  same  time  a  very  large  surface  for  the  deposition  of  impurities. 

The  filters  may  be  built  of  brick  or  stone  and  cement,  or  simply  of  earth ;  their 
bottoms,  according  to  Planche,  are  to  be  covered  with  coarse  gravel  or  stone,  ordinary 
gravel  succeeding,  and  sand  forming  the  upper  layer.  The  water  usually  enters  on 
top  and  leaves  at  the  bottom.  In  the  course  of  time  such  an  amount  of  dirt  will 
settle  on  the  stones  that  water  can  no  longer  be  purified  by  passing  through  them, 
and  then  they  have  to  be  thoroughly  washed. 

To  suffer  no  delay  the  mill  should  be  supplied  with  two  such  filters,  or  with  one 
divided  by  a  partition,  which  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will,  so  that  one  part  can 
be  cleaned  while  the  other  is  yet  in  operation. 

A  paper-mill  in  Prussia,  which  the  author  formerly  superintended,  has  a  square 
brick  filter,  divided  by  cross  walls  into  four  equal  compartments,  which  are  filled 
several  feet  deep  with  fine  gravel,  and  connected  by  short  pieces  of  large  iron  pipes 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  water  passes  constantly  through  three  of  them  in  succession, 
while  one  can  be  cut  off  and  washed  out.  A  workman  enters  for  this  purpose,  moves" 
the  gravel  to  one  side,  thus  making  an  empty  space,  on  which  he  gradually  washes 
the  gravel  by  mixing  it  with  plenty  of  water.  The  dirty  water  escapes  through  a 
valve  with  which  each  chamber  is  provided. 

The  wash-water  frequently  passes  through  additional  strainers  before  entering 
the  reservoir  in  the  upper  part  of  the  mill.  One,  which  is  frequently  seen,  consists 
of  two  wire-cloth  covered  frames,  with  woollen  rags,  slightly  cut  in  the  engine,  filled 
in  between  them. 

This  double  frame  is  fastened  horizonially  in  a  tub  or  vat,  the  water  passing 
through  it  from  the  lower  side,  so  that  the  impurities  cannot  lodge  upon  it,  but  will 
fall  to  the  bottom  and  leave  the  wire  unobstructed. 

If  the  water  enters  the  engine  from  the  top,  a  flannel  bag  may  be  tied  around 
the  outlet  of  the  pipe,  and,  if  frequently  washed  out,  it  will  be  of  some  assistance. 

The  following  Fig.  128  represents  a  section  of  a  patent  filter,  which  is  seen  in 
many  of  our  best  New  England  paper-mills.  A  brass  or  copper  cylinder  is  divided 
into  three  parts  by  plates  or  diaphragms  a  and  b  of  the  same  diameter,  to  which 
small  cylinders  or  pockets  c,  covered  at  both  ends  with  wire-cloth,  and  filled  with 
pieces  of  sponge,  are  fastened.  The  water,  entering  from  below  (or  above),  passes 
through  the  pockets  c,  where  the  sponge  retains  the  impurities,  and  leaves  at  the  other 
end.  The  narrow  projecting  rings  d  prevent  the  water  from  making  its  way  along 
the  sides  without  penetrating  through  the  sponge. 

The  capacity  of  the  apparatus  depends  evidently  on  the  number  and  size  of 


WASH -WATER. 


337 


the  pockets,  and  as  many  of  tliem  as  room  can  be  found  for,  should  therefore  be 
fastened  to  the  plates'  a  and  b. 

A  valve  is  bolted  to  the  inlet  e,  and  regulates  the  flow  of  water. 

Every  beating-engine  is,  in  some  mills,  supplied  with  one  of  these  filters ;  while 
all  the  wash-water  passes  in  others  through  one  or  several  large-sized  ones  directly 
on  leaving  the  reservoir. 

Simple  as  these  filters  are,  it  requires  experience  and  judgment  to  keep  them  in 
order.    The  sponges  must  be  frequently  taken  out  to  be  washed,  and  then  put  back 


Fig.  128. 


into  the  pockets ;  if  they  be  packed  in  too  tight,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  cannot 
get  through,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  water  will  not  be  purified  if  they  are  laid  in 
too  loosely. 

275.  Chemical  Impurities. — The  chemical  impurities,  mostly  invisible,  are  as 
numerous  as  the  materials  over  which  the  streams  pass  in  their  courses.  Some  metals, 
but  especially  iron,  some  of  the  alkalies,  principally  lime,  and  extracts  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter  from  the  drainage  of  cultivated  fields,  are  the  substances  which  are 
mostly  found  dissolved  in  water. 

Carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia  are  very  slightly  soluble  in  pure  water,  but 
dissolve  freely  in  water  which  contains  carbonic  acid,  and  as  the  latter  is  always  to 
some  extent  absorbed  from  the  air,  the  water  is  capable  of  holding  some  carbonate  of 
lime  or  magnesia  in  solution. 

Sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum  is  another  form  under  which  this  alkali  is  found  in 
water. 

Common  salt  or  chloride  of  sodium  appears  occasionally. 

43 


338 


GENEBAL  REMABKS. 


Water  which  contains  much  lime  or  magnesia  is  called  hai^d,  and  every  house- 
keeper knows  that  it  will  not  answer  for  washing  purposes,  as*  it  does  not  dissolve 
soap  until  the  lime  or  magnesia  has  been  precijiitated. 

If  the  carbonic  acid,  which  enables  the  water  to  hold  the  carbonates  of  lime  and 
magnesia  in  solution,  is  driven  out  by  boiling,  or  absorbed  by  caustic  lime  or  soda 
which  may  have  been  added  for  this  purpose,  the  carbonates  will  assume  a  solid  form, 
settle  to  the  bottom,  and  thus  render  the  water  soft.  The  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum, 
or  the  chlorides  or  nitrate  of  lime,  cannot  be  so  easily  eliminated,  and  water  which 
contains  considerable  proportions  of  them  is  therefore  called  permanently  hard. 

Hard  water  also  alfects  a  good  many  coloring  materials,  and  its  most  objection- 
able quality  is  that  it  forms  deposits  in  steam-boilers,  which  are  frequently  very  trou- 
blesome, and  may  be  the  primary  cause  of  an  explosion. 

Wash-water  which  contains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  to  be  hard,  is  unfit  for 
a  paper-mill. 

Iron  salts  in  contact  with  alkalies,  lime,  or  soda,  deliver  their  acid  to  the  latter, 
and  the  iron  precipitates  as  oxide  or  rust,  coloring  the  pulp  until  it  may  be  re-dis- 
solved by  sulphuric  or  other  acids.  Although  the  proportion  of  these  salts  be  insig- 
nificant, the  quantities  of  water  used  are  so  enormous  that  the  total  amount  of  iron  is 
yet  quite  considerable.  A  500-pound  engine,  for  example,  carries  about  10,000 
pounds  of  water,  and  if  this  contains  only  one-fiftieth  of  one  per  cent,  of  iron,  there 
will  be  2  pounds  of  it  in  the  whole  mass,  and  if  this  water  is  renewed  five  times 
during  one  washing  operation,  10  pounds  of  iron  will  be  brought  in  contact  with 
th'6  rags. 

The  soda,  bleach-liquor,  alum,  or  sulphuric  acid,  absorbed  or  neutralized  by 
these  iron  salts  in  the  multitude  of  operations,  in  all  of  which  water  is  an  important 
factor,  sum  up  to  a  large  quantity  in  a  short  time.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the 
difference  in  the  quantities  of  chemicals,  consumed  for  like  operations  on  the  same 
stock  in  different  mills,  may  sometimes  be  traced  to  this  source. 

The  presence  of  iron  can  easily  be  discovered  by  the  addition  of  a  solution  of 
yellow  prussiate  of  potash  to  the  water  ;'the  iron  salts  will  form  with  it  Prussian  blue. 

•The  total  amount  of  mineral  impurities  can  be  ascertained  by  evaporating  care- 
fully several  gallons  of  water  and  weighing  the  residue. 

The  Croton  water,  which  supplies  New  York  City,  is  considered  very  pure,  and 
contains  10.93  grains  of  solid  matter  in  a  gallon,  or  about  one-fiftieth  of  one  per  cent. 

For  papers  of  a  lower  grade,  such  as  wrapping,  the  preparation  of  which 're- 
quires few  chemicals,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  vital  importance  ;  but  as  the  color  of  all  white 
papers  depends  greatly  on  the  purity  of  the  wash-water,  an  abundance  of  pure,  clear, 
wash-water  is  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  successful  manufacture  of  fine  papers. 

276.  Sources  of  Wash-Water. — To  determine  which  are  the  best  sources  for  good 
wash-water,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  manner  of  their  formation. 

The  water  which  covers  the  surface  of  the  earth,  changes  its  form  constantly ;  it 
evaporates,  and  is  taken  up  and  carried  away  by  the  winds  as  vapor.    The  air  is  able 


WASH-WATEB. 


339 


to  hold  more  water  at  a  higher  temperature  than  at  a  lower  one ;  any  cold  wind  will, 
therefore,  cause  some  of  it  to  drop  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow. 

The  water,  on  returning  to  the  earth  in  this  form,  is  as  pure  as  it  can  be  found 
in  nature ;  it  contains  no  foreign  matters  but  the  gases  which  it  takes  up  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  if  it  flows  over  hard,  insoluble  substances,  such  as  rocks  of  granite, 
or  quartz,  or  over  sand,  it  preserves  this  purity.  Streams  of  this  kind  are  very  valu- 
able, but  unfortunately  they  can  only  be  found  in  the  mountains,  in  most  cases  too 
far  from  markets,  to  be  available. 

The  purity  of  all  surface  waters,  such  as  creeks  and  rivers,  depends  entirely  on 
the  nature  of  the  soil  over  which  they  themselves  and  their  tributaries  pass,  and 
should  be  in  every  case  investigated. 

A  great  portion  of  the  snow  and  rain  filters  through  the  ground  and  comes  again 
to  the  surface  in  some  lower  places,  as  springs,  or  gathers  in  large  cavities  below,  to 
which  access  is  had  by  means  of  wells. 

Very  often  these  underground  lakes  extend  from  high  places  to  low  ones,  and 
are  only  prevented  from  rising  to  a  uniform  level  by  a  stratum  of  water-tight  mate- 
rials. In  boring  an  artesian  well  this  stratum  is  pierced,  and  the  water  forces  its  way 
upward  with  a  tendency  to  reach  the  level  of  the  highest  point  of  the  body  of  water 
from  which  it  comes.  In  some  cases  it  rises  through  large  pipes  high  enough  to  drive  ^ 
a  water-wheel,  while  in  others  it  hardly  comes  to  the  surface ;  sometimes  the  water 
obtained  is  very  pure,  and  at  others  it  is  loaded  with  foreign  elements. 

Boring  an  artesian  well  in  an  untried  place  is  like  digging  for  hidden  treasures, — 
a  very  uncertain  undertaking. 

One  or  more  never-failing  springs  of  pure  water,  furnishing  a  full  supply,  are 
very  valuable  in  a  good  location. 

Where  good  wells  can  easily  be  made,  and  where  experience  has  shown  that  they 
keep  their  supply  all  the  year,  they  are,  if  the  water  is  chemically  pure,  often  pref- 
erable to  surface  water.  While  the  latter  may  require  to  be  artificially  filtered,  the 
well  water  has  been  cleared  by  passing  through  the  soil.  This  is  especially  the  case 
in  sandy  regions,  and  many  cities,  for  instance  Dayton,  in  Ohio,  derive  their  entire 
water  supply  from  a  single  well  of  large  size. 

277.  Systems  of  Distribution. — If  the  wash-water  can  be  taken  from  a  convenient 
place  above  the  mill,  so  that  it  has  fall  enough  to  run  directly  into  the  engines,  a 
considerable  amount  of  power  and  some  machinery,  which  would  otherwise  be  neces^ 
sary  to  force  it  up,  will  be  saved. 

Mills  which  are  not  so  fortunate,  must  have  receivers  in  some  of  the  highest  parts 
of  their  buildings,  into  which  the  water  can  be  lifted  by  pumps,  and  from  which  it  is 
distributed.  These  reservoirs  must  be  water-tight,  and,  if  of  wood,  should  be 
circular,  but  iron  is  a  better  material  for  this  purpose,  as  it  does  not  shrink  and  open 
in  the  joints  like  wood  when  for  a  time  empty. 

If  the  pump  has  to  stop  for  repairs,  or  from  other  causes,  the  mill  has  to  be 
stopped  also,  unless  the  reservoir  holds  water  enough  to  keep  it  going. 


340 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


A  strong  foundation  is  at  all  times  required  for  it,  as  the  weight  of  water  in 
even  a  small  reservoir  is  considerable. 

One  of  the  largest  mills  in  this  country  is  supplied  with  a  capacious  settling  pond 
or  reservoir  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  situated  higher  than  any  part  of  the  machinery, 
and  is  filled  every  Sunday  by  means  of  a  large  force-pump,  driven  by  water-power, 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  the  six  following  days. 

We  have  also  been  informed  that  two  barrels  of  porous  alum  are  emptied  into 
this  pond  after  it  has  been  filled,  in  order  to  precipitate  the  impurities.  The  lime  and 
iron,  which  may  be  contained  in  the  water  in  the  form  of  carbonates,  will  form  sul- 
phate of  lime  and  sulphate  of  iron  with  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  alum,  while  its 
other  component  part,  the  alumina  or  clay,  is  set  free  and  carries  down  mechanically 
some  of  the  floating  impurities. 

278.  Quantity  Required. — It  is  impossible  to  calculate  exactly  the  quantity  of 
wash-water  which  is  required  for  a  paper-mill,  but  an  estimate,  on  which  the  sizes  of 
the  pump  and  of  the  distributing  pipes  may  be  based,  is  indispensable.  We  shall 
indicate  how  the  data,  on  which  such  an  estimate  may  be  based,  can  be  obtained,  and 
coupled  with  experience,  it  will  be  a  sufficient  guide. 

The  washing-engines  consume  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  all  the  wash-water, 
^  and  we  suppose,  for  example,  that  two  of  them,  15  feet  long  hy  7h  feet  wide,  holding 
each  about  500  pounds  of  rags,  are  used  in  a  mill  of  a  capacity  of  about  3000  pounds 
of  white  paper  per  day.  It  is  true  that  they  do  not  always  wash  at  one  and  the  same 
time,  but  it  happens  so  sometimes,  and  we  must  be  prepared  in  such  cases  to  furnish 
enough  water.  If  the  receiver  is  large  enough  to  hold  all  the  surplus,  so  that  no  water 
need  be  wasted  through  the  overflow,  no  power  is  lost,  but  if  the  receiver  is  small,  the 
pumjj  has  to  furnish  an  excess,  which  during  most  of  the  time  runs  away. 

The  washers  must  be  fed  with  as  much  water  as  they  are  able  to  discharge, 
and  this  will  in  most  cases  be  amply  done  by  a  stream  which  will  fill  the  empty 
tub  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  One  of  the  engines  taken  for  this  example,  holds 
about  160  cubic  feet  =  1200  gallons;  two  engines,  therefore,  require  in  fifteen  minutes 
2  X  1200  =  2400  gallons,  or  in  one  minute,  160  gallons. 

The  quantity  of  water  consumed  in  boiling,  by  the  beaters,  and  by  the  paper- 
machine,  is  difficult  to  estimate,  but  it  is  seldom  as  large  as  that  required  by  the 
washers,  especially  at  the  high  rate,  estimated  in  this  example.  We  are,  therefore, 
pretty  safe  in  taking  double  the  quantity,  calculated  for  the  washing-engines,  or 
2  X  160  =  320  gallons  per  minute,  as  the  whole  supply  needed. 

An  abundance  of  wash-water  is  one  of  the  first  conditions  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  and  it  is  therefore  wise  rather  to  waste  power  than  to  have  an  insufficient  quan- 
tity of  water.  We  have  to  make  allowance  for  deficient  work  of  the  pump  and  leak- 
age in  many  places,  and  may  add  one-fourth  of  the  calculated  number,  or  =  80 
gallons,  and  thus  need  a  pumjj,  capable  of  throwing  400  gallons  per  minute. 

The  power  which  is  necessary  to  raise  such  a  quantity  of  water,  can  easily  be 
calculated.    If  it  is,  for  instance,  taken  from  a  well,  at  a  depth  of  12  feet,  and  pumped 


WASH-WATEB. 


341 


into  a  receiver,  the  water  surface  of  which  is  38  feet  above  the  ground,  the  total  height 
through  which  it  must  be  raised  is  38  +  12  =  50  feet.  It  takes  as  much  power  to 
raise  the  weight  of  400  gallons  or  400  x  8|  =  3380  pounds  50  feet  high,  as  would 
be  required  to  raise  3330  x  50,  or  166,500  pounds,  one  foot  high.  One  horse-power 
is  accepted  as  equal  to  the  power  which  is  necessary  to  raise  33,000  pounds  one 
foot  high  in  one  minute,  and  our  166,500  are  therefore  equal  to  =  5  horse- 
power actual  work, 

279.  Pumps. — Piston  or  plunger-pumps,  with  suction  or  pressure-valves,  although 
the  oldest  style,  are  even  at  present  in  many  cases  preferred  to  all  others. 

The  valves  must  have  time  to  ojpen  and  close  perfectly  if  a  good  result  is  ex- 
pected, and  their  speed  should  therefore  always  be  moderate. 

The  perfection  of  rotary  pumps  has  been  the  study  of  numerous  mechanics  for 
many  years,  and  the  patents  taken  out  for  them  would  alone  fill  a  good-sized  book. 
These  pumps  work  mostly  without  valves  and  run  fast,  but  their  speed,  and  with 
it  the  quantity  of  water  thrown,  can  be  considerably  increased  or  reduced  at  will ; 
they  take  little  room,  are  operated  by  belts,  can  be  easily  set  up,  and  require  little 
care. 

Rotary  pumps,  being  generally  less  efficient  as  suction  than  as  force-pumps,  are 
usually  set  as  close  to  the  source  of  supply  as  possible ;  some  working  best,  if  the  water 
is  made  to  run  into  them  without  any  suction.  As  force-pumps  they  are  excellent, 
and  some  are  even  used  for  steam-fire  engines. 

The  absence  of  valves  makes  it  possible  for  pieces  of  wood,  rags,  or  other  solid 
matters,  which  may  accidentally  be  in  the  water,  to  pass  through  a  rotary,  while  they 
would  obstruct  and  perhaps  damage  a  piston-pump.  The  author  found  one  day 
some  deficiency  in  the  supply  of  wash-water,  when  on  examination  the  head  and 
numerous  other  parts  of  the  body  of  a  snapping-turtle,  about  5  inches  broad,  were 
found  in  the  receiver.  The  animal  had  evidently  entered  the  suction-pipe,  was 
drawn  to  the  (Holly)  rotary-pump,  and  chopped  up  by  it. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  at  a  low  density,  is  equal  to  that  of  a  column  of 
water  of  30  feet  height. 

If  it  were  possible  to  construct  a  pump  so  perfect,  that  it  could  withdraw  all  the 
air  from  the  suction-pipe,  thus  creating  an  absolute  vacuum,  the  water  would  rise  in 
it  to  a  height  of  about  30  feet,  forced  by  the  atmosphere  outside  ;  but  if  the  water 
had  to  be  raised  but  a  trifle  above  this  limit,  the  atmospheric  pressure  could  not  do 
it,  and  it  would  never  reach  the  pump.  The  height  to  which  any  jiump  can  raise 
water  by  suction  is  therefore  always  less  than  30  feet. 

If  the  suction-pipe  is  not  perfectly  air-tight,  if  the  air  enters  through  a  small 
hole  or  crack,  feeding  the  pump  in  the  place  of  water,  a  vacuum  cannot  be  created, 
and  the  pump  will  run  empty.  The  hole  may  be  small  enough  to  be  invisible  to  the 
eye;  it  may  accidentally  appear  by  the  loosening  of  a  joint,  the  opening  of  a  sand- 
hole  in  the  casting,  or  otherwise,  and  its  discovery  is  often  difficult. 

It  is  most  likely  to  be  found  by  running  the  pump  and  creating  suction,  and 


342 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


then  holding  a  burning  light  to  all  suspected  places ;  wherever  there  is  an  opening 
the  current  will  change  the  direction  of  the  flame  and  draw  it  in. 

This  difficulty  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  such  a  disposition,  as  will  admit  of  as 
short  a  suction-pipe  as  possible. 

There  is  another  kind  of  pump  which  is  frequently  used  in  paper-mills,  and 
recommends  itself  by  reason  of  its  simplicity. 

It  consists  of  a  strong  rubber  belt  carrying  iron  or  copper  buckets,  which  belt 
runs  over  two  large  flanged  pulleys,  one  of  which  is  located  inside  of  a  lower  water- 
tank,  while  the  other  is  fastened  above  the  upper  receiver. 

The  shaft  of  the  upper  roll  is  turned  by  a  pulley  and  belt,  and  raises  the  buckets 
which  have  been  filled  in  the  lower  tank.  They  travel  up  and  down  in  close-fitting 
wooden  spouts  or  troughs,  and  are  emptied,  as  soon  as  they  pass  over  the  upper  roll, 
into  a  receiving  channel,  which  connects  with  the  reservoir. 

This  pump  is  built  on  the  same  principle  as  a  grain  elevator,  and  works  well 
where  the  water  is  not  to  be  raised  very  high. 


SECTION  II. 
Water-Powek. 

280.  Measuring  the  Power. — The  fall  of  a  body  of  water,  like  that  of  any  other 
substance,  exercises  a  power,  equal  to  its  weight  multiplied  by  the  height  of  the  fall, 
and  if  it  is  produced  by  the  continuous  flow  of  a  stream,  it  can  be  utilized. 

To  find  out  how  much  power  there  is  at  a  given  point,  it  is  necessary  to  establish, 
by  a  survey  or  by  levelling,  how  many  feet  of  fall  can  be  obtained,  and  what  quantity 
of  water  flows  down  the  stream  during  a  second  or  a  minute. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  measure  the  fall  of  water,  but  more  difficult  to  deter- 
mine its  quantity.  The  latter  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  number  of  square  feet 
of  a  vertical  section  of  the  stream  with  the  velocity,  or  with  the  number  of  feet  through 
which  the  water  advances  in  one  minute.  If  a  race  is  at  hand  it  may  be  used  for  this 
measurement ;  otherwise  a  part  of  the  creek,  with  as  straight  banks  and  as  even  a 
width  as  can  be  found,  should  be  selected.  We  measure  of  it  a  certain  length,  say 
100  feet,  and  in  several  points  of  this  length  the  vertical  section,  viz.,  its  width  and 
medium  depth.    From  these  several  ones  the  medium  size  of  a  section  is  calculated. 


WATEB-POWEB. 


343 


An  instrument,  resembling  a  wind-mill  on  a  small  scale,  has  been  constructed  for 
the  measurement  of  the  velocity  of  flowing  waters,  which,  when  set  in  a  stream  at 
any  point,  registers  the  number  of  revolutions  of  a  fan,  which  enables  us  to  obtain 
the  speed. 

If  such  an  instrument  is  not  to  be  had,  a  piece  of  light  wood  may  be  used  m  its 
place ;  it  is  simply  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  creek,  at  the  point  above  where 
the  measured  part  begins,  while  the  time  which  it  consumes  in  flowing  down  through 
the  100  feet  length  is  observed  with  a  watch.  The  number  of  feet,  made  by  it  in  one 
second,  is  the  velocity,  and  gives,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  square  feet  of  the 
medium  vertical  section,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  which  pass  through  the 
stream  in  one  second. 

If  a  precise  calculation  is  to  be  made,  the^speed  on  the  surface  cannot  be  accepted 
as  that  of  the  whole  body  of  water.  The  friction  on  the  bottom  and  sides  retards  the 
motion,  and  must  be  taken  into  account.  If  we  call  the  surface  velocity  per  second, 
found  with  the  floating  wood,  V,  the  real  velocity  v  of  the  stream  is  expressed,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  authorities,  by  the  formula — 

7.71 +  V 

v  =  V  

1Q.25  +  V 

If  we  have,  for  example,  a  race  or  creek  of  20  feet  medium  width,  3  feet  medium 
depth,  with  a  surface  velocity  of  1  foot  per  second,  the  real  velocity  of  the  water  will  be: 

,  7.71  +  1  77 

and  the  volume  of  water,  which  flows  through  it  during'  one  second  : 

20  X  3  =  46.2  cubic  feet. 

One  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62  i  pounds,  and  46.2  cubic  feet  =  2887.50 
pounds.  This  quantity  is  available  every  second,  or  60  x  2887.50  =  173,250  pounds 
every  minute.  If  there  be  a  fall  of  15  feet,  the  power  is  equal  to  the  fall  of  173,250 
X  15  =  2,598,750  pounds  through  one  foot  per  minute. 

One-horse  power  being  equal  to  the  fall  of  33,000  pounds  through  one  foot 
height  in  one  minute,  the  water  power  amounts  to 

2,598,750  , 
-^P^  =  78/,  horses. 

281.  Dams. — The  proper  construction  of  a  dam  depends  so  much  upon  the  loca- 
tion and  the  material  which  can  be  had  for  it,  that  general  rules  cannot  be  given.  If 
possible,  it  should  be  so  situated  that  a  large  body  of  water  can  be  accumulated  be- 


344 


GENERAL  EEMARKS. 


hind  it,  which  may  be  drawn  upon  in  dry  seasons.  Lakes,  as  sources  of  supply,  are 
excellent  natural  reservoirs. 

If  the  dam  and  the  mill  are  situated  in  a  narrow  valley  where,  in  case  of  a  flood, 
the  water  cannot  spread  over  a  large  surface,  but  is  stowed  up  high,  the  pressure  some- 
times becomes  so  strong  that  both  dam  and  mill  are  swept  away  like  chaff  before  the 
wind.  Such  sites  on  streams,  which  are  subjected  to  freshets,  are  dangerous,  and  re- 
quire the  construction  of  the  best  foundations  for  both  mill  and  dam,  which  human 
skill  can  devise. 

The  head-race  conveys  the  water  from  the  dam  to  the  point  where  it  begins  to 
act  on  the  mechanism.  It  may  be  an  open  conduit  or  a  closed  pipe,  or  a  combi- 
nation of  both.  Economy  of  power  requires,  that  it  should  be  as  large  as  possible  ; 
economy  of  first  cost,  that  it  should  be  as  small  as  possible  ;  the  right  mean  must  be 
chosen.  The  entrance  of  the  water  is  regulated  by  the  head  gates  at  the  starting- 
point,  while  the  lower  end  pours  it  on  a  water-wheel  or  into  the  penstock  of  a  turbine. 

We  may  also  mention  in  this  j^lace  the  water-power  companies,  who,  by  the 
creation  of  large  powers,  have  built  up  some  of  our  most  prosperous  manufacturing 
cities,  such  as  Lowell,  Lawrence,  and  Holyoke,  in  Massachusetts.  The  latter  town 
especially  is  considered  the  princij)al  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  fine  papers  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Connecticut  River,  and  has 
about  12,000  inhabitants.  A  company  was  organized  about  twenty  years  ago  to 
make  the  large  power  of  the  river  available ;  a  dam,  over  1000  feet  wide  and  28  feet 
high,  was  built,  and  the  water  drawn  off  by  one  canal  on  the  Holyoke  side  and  by 
another  on  the  left  bank,  at  South  Hadley  Falls.  The  ground  between  the  canals 
and  the  river  was  laid  out  in  lots,  soon  began  to  be  occupied  by  mills  of  all  kinds,  and 
a  large  town  was  created  where  formerly  stood  only  a  small  village.  Nearly  50  tons 
of  pajier,  principally  letter-paper,  are  at  present  made  daily  at  Holyoke,  and  yet  a 
large  amount  of  the  40,000  horse-power  which  is  available,  remains  to  be  disposed 
of  at  a  moderate  yearly  rental. 

Some  of  the  paper-mills  obtain  their  wash-water  from  artesian  wells  or  through 
pipes  from  a  distance,  and  others  draw  it  from  the  supply-canal  through  large  trunks 
filled  with  gravel  and  built  into  the  embankments. 

The  success  of  the  Holyoke  enterprise  stimulated,  a  few  years  ago,  the  formation 
of  a  new  company  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  the  water-powers  of  the  same  Connecticut 
River,  at  Turner's  Falls,  about  30  miles  above  Holyoke.  A  dam  of  about  1000  feet 
in  width  was  built  there,  and  a  number  of  factories,  among  which  are  several  paper- 
mills,  are  already  running,  and  a  town  is  being  built  as  if  by  magic. 

282.  Water-Wheels. — The  old-style  water-wheel  is  always  vertical,  while  its  more 
recent  competitor,  the  turbine,  is  horizontal. 

Neither  of  them,  nor  any  other  hydraulic  motor,  is  capable  of  returning  the  full 
actual  power  of  the  waterfall. 

Vertical  water-wheels  are  divided  in  undershot,  breast,  and  overshot  wheels, 
according  to  that  part  of  the  circumference  where  the  water  strikes  them. 


WATEB-POWEB. 


345 


The  overshot  wheel  returns  the  highest  proportion  of  the  actual  power,  while  the 
results  obtained  with  breast-wheels  are  less  favorable,  the  lower  down  on  their  outer 
circle  the  water  is  admitted.  The  overshot  is  therefore  the  only  kind  of  vertical 
water-wheels  which  may  compete  with  the  turbine  as  a  motor  for  paper-mills. 

If  the  overshot  water-wheel  could  be  constructed  so,  that  the  whole  body  of  water 
would  be  carriQcl  by  it  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  point  of  the  available  fall,  and 
be  there  suddenly  discharged,  nearly  the  whole  natural  power  would  be  realized, 
while,  as  it  is,  considerable  losses  will  be  suffered,  some  of  which  are  here  indicated. 

The  fall  is  represented  by  the  distance  between  the  surfaces  of  the  water  in  the 
head-race  and  in  the  tail-race.  The  portion  of  this  distance  between  the  surface  in 
the  head-race  and  the  wheel  itself  acts  only  by  impulse,  but  not  by  weight. 

Instead  of  the  full  outside  diameter  of  the  wheel,  the  distance  between  the  point 
of  gravity  of  the  water  in  the  uppermost  and  in  the  lowest  bucket  must  be  counted, 
as  it  is  there  where  the  weight  of  the  water  may  be  considered  concentrated.  Over 
half  of  the  depth  of  two  buckets,  or  the  full  depth  of  one  bucket,  is  thus  lost. 

The  wheel  must  hang  free  above  the  water  in  the  tail-race,  and  the  distance 
between  wheel  and  water,  representing  a  small  portion  of  the  fall,  is  also  lost. 

The  buckets  cannot  be  emptied  suddenly  at  the  lowest  point ;  they  require  some — 
be  it  never  so  little — time  for  it,  and  must  therefore  begin  to  discharge  at  some  height 
above  a  portion  of  the  water,  the  weight  of  which  will  be  lost  for  the  balance  of  the  fall. 

If  any  water  is  left  in  the  buckets  on  their  ascent,  its  dead  weight  neutralizes 
the  same  quantity  of  live  weight  on  the  descending  side. 

To  all  the  losses  just  enumerated  must  be  added  those  from  friction  and  contrac- 
tion in  the  races  and  wheel,  from  leakage,  and  bad  construction. 

To  obtain  the  best  possible  effect,  the  wheel  must  be  built  in  such  a  manner  that 
no  part  of  it  can  leak  or  change  position,  and  its  top  should  be  about  2\  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  water  in  the  race.  Wood  will  become  warped,  and  will  rot,  and  is 
therefore  inferior  to  iron ;  but,  if  an  all  iron  wheel  is  too  expensive,  the  buckets  alone 
may  be  of  metal  and  the  body  of  wood.  Care  must  also  be  taken  to  provide  an  easy 
escape  for  the  air  contained  in  the  buckets,  through  openings  in  the  sole-plate.  A 
guide-board,  over  which  the  water  is  made  to  flow  in  the  right  direction  and  to  the 
right  spot,  is  used  to  convey  it  from  the  head-race  to  the  wheel. 

The  circumference  of  a  water-wheel  should,  according  to  the  best  authorities, 
have — be  its  diameter  large  or  small — a  speed  of  not  less  than  4  feet  and  not  more 
than  8  feet  per  second.  A  point  on  a  large  circle,  if  moving  with  the  same  speed  as 
a  point  on  a  small  one,  requires  more  time  to  make  a  revolution  than  the  latter ;  the 
larger  a  water-wheel  is,  the  slower  will  therefore  be  the  movement  of  its  shaft. 

Overshot  water-wheels  furnish  from  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  natural  water- 
power,  according  to  the  amount  of  care  and  skill  applied  to  their  construction  and 
disposition. 

283.  Turbines. — The  turbine  is  a  horizontal  water-wheel  with  vertical  axis,  con- 
sisting of  a  drum  or  annular  passage  with  a  set  of  vanes,  curved  like  the  surface  of  a 

44 


346 


QENEBAL  BEMABKS. 


screw,  so  that  the  water,  after  having  exercised  its  impulse  on  them,  will  glance  off 
with  as  little  energy  as  possible.  While  the  vertical  wheel  is  moved  principally  by 
the  weight  of  the  water,  the  turbine  is  propelled  by  its  impulse  only,  and  to  get  the 
best  effect,  the  water  has  to  be  guided  so  that  it  will  strike  every  part  of  the  moving 
vanes  as  nearly  as  possible  at  a  right  angle. 

The  first  turbine,  invented  by  Fourneyron,  was  put  in  operation  in  the  year 
1827,  at  Pont  sur  I'Ognon,  in  France ;  this  Fourneyron-wheel  was  then  and  is  yet 
constructed  of  two  concentric  rings,  both  of  which  are  open  on  their  vertical  sides, 
closed  on  their  horizontal  ones,  and  supplied  with  an  equal  number  of  vanes.  The 
inner  ring  is  stationary,  receiving  the  water  in  the  centre  and  acting  as  a  guide  only, 
while  the  outer  one  revolves  and  transmits  the  power,  the  water  leaving  at  its  cir- 
cumference. 

Jonval  made  the  guide-wheel  and  the  revolving-wheel  of  the  same  diameter,  and 
placed  them,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  in  a  vertical  cylinder.  He  was  thereby  able  to 
set  the  turbine  at  any  height  between  the  head  and  tail-races,  with  equally  good 
results,  provided  that  the  lower  portion,  which  may  be  called  the  suction-pij^e  or 
draft-tube,  be  less  than  80  feet  high  above  the  level  of  the  tail-race. 

To  prove  this  seemingly  strange  fact,  we  will  take  as  an  example  a  fall  of  20 
feet,  with  a  turbine  wheel  incased  in  a  water-tight  cylinder  or  penstock  of  20  feet 
height.  If  the  wheel  is  placed  at  the  lowest  end,  the  water  is  forced  through  it  with 
the  pressure  exercised  by  the  20  feet  fall  and  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere — 
equal  to  30  feet  fall — or  altogether  by  50  feet.  But  the  atmosphere  has  also  free 
access  to  the  water  in  the  tail-race,  and  presses  against  the  turbine  with  a  force,  also 
equal  to  30  feet  fall,  which  must  be  overcome.  Deducting,  therefore,  these  80  feet 
from  the  50  feet  pressure  from  above,  leaves  only  20  feet  or  the  fall  of  the  water  as 
the  active  pressure. 

If  the  same  turbine  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  penstock,  10  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  either  race,  the  water  will  be  forced  on  to  the  turbine  with  a 
pressure,  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the  column  of  water  above  the  wheel,  or  to  10  feet 
in  addition  to  the  atmospheric  pressure,  or  altogether  to  10  +  80  =  40  feet.  But 
before  the  atmosphere  can  in  this  case  exercise  any  pressure  against  the  wheel  from 
the  lower  side,  it  must  first  overcome  the  column  of  10  feet  in  the  draft-tube  below  the 
wheel,  and  is  therefore  reduced  to  80  less  10  or  to  20  feet.  The  difference  between  the 
pressure  above  and  the  resistance  below  is  therefore  40  less  20,  or  20  feet,  as  before. 

The  draft-tube  below  a  turbine  acts  like  the  suction-pipe  of  a  pumjD ;  if  air  finds 
admittance  into  it,  power  equal  to  a  fall  of  the  same  height  is  lost. 

There  is  always  danger  that  an  opening  may  be  caused  by  some  accident,  by  faults 
in  the  material,  or  by  wear  and  tear ;  and  even  the  most  insignificant  holes,  which  can 
hardly  be  seen,  must  cause  some  loss  of  power.  In  most  cases  these  pipes  are  located 
where  it  is  very  difl&cult  to  examine  them,  and  much  valuable  power  is  often  wasted 
before  the  faulty  spot  can  be  discovered.  Suction-pipes  or  draft-tubes  for  turbine- 
wheels  should  therefore  be  dispensed  with,  except  in  cases  where  for  some  reason  the 
wheels  cannot  be  set  low  enough  to  do  without  them. 


WATEE-POWEB. 


347 


Some  turbines  which  have  within  late  years  been  much  used,  are  remarkable 
especially  for  simplicity  and  consequent  cheapness.  Every  opening  is  provided  with 
a  gate,  formed  and  fastened  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a 
guide  to  the  entering  water.  All  these  gates  can  be  opened  and  closed  by  one  com- 
mon rod,  with  which  they  are  connected  by  levers  or  gearings.  The  water  enters  on 
the  outer  circle  and  escapes  inside,  but,  instead  of  running  away  at  once,  it  passes 
another  set  of  differently  curved  vanes,  intended  to  absorb  any  power  which  may  have 
been  left  in  it. 

These  horizontal  wheels  always  run  fast,  and,  like  the  vertical  ones,  the  more  so 
the  smaller  they  are.  They  must  be  made  of  metal,  because  wood  would  take  up  too 
much  space  and  could  not  be  moulded  into  the  required  shape.  The  penstock  and 
its  enlargement,  in  which  the  wheels  run,  or  the  casing,  is  often  built  of  wood ;  but 
it  is  advisable  to  construct  it  of  iron  at  all  times,  especially  when  it  is  exposed  to 
the  pressure  of  a  high  fall.  The  first  expense  will  be  larger,  but  the  almost  inevi- 
table escape  of  water  by  leakage  and  the  constant  repairs  of  a  wooden  structure  will 
be  avoided. 

Turbines  lose  power,  like  overshot  wheels,  by  friction  and  contraction,  and  be- 
cause they  cannot  be  constructed  sufficiently  perfect  to  absorb  all  the  power.  They 
return  from  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  natural  power ;  75  per  cent,  may  be  considered 
a  very  good  result,  while  80  is  only  obtained  in  exceptional  cases. 

284.  Comparative  Advantages  of  Overshot  and  Turbine  Wheels. — Overshot  wheels 
may  be  used  when  the  available  waterfall  is  such  that  their  diameter  will  be  reason- 
ably large — not  below  12  and  not  above  25  feet;  if  the  diameter  would  have  to  be 
beyond  these  limits,  a  turbine  would  be  preferable. 

Turbines,  being  submerged  in  water,  are  never  frozen  up,  and  although  their 
power  will  be  reduced  by  backwater  in  j^roportion  to  the  diminution  of  the  fall,  they 
cannot  be  stopped  by  it  like  vertical  water-wheels. 

Large  gearing  is  required,  to  produce  from  the  slow  motion  of  a  vertical  water- 
wheel  the  high  speed  required  by  the  line-shaft  of  a  paper-mill,  while  one  pair  of  com- 
paratively small  bevel-wheels  only  is  necessary  with  the  fast-running  turbine. 

'  Wherever  the  supply  of  water  is  either  abundant  or  steady,  the  tiu-bine  will 
give  a  regular  speed  and  good  effect.  But  it  returns  the  highest  percentage  of  power 
only  with  the  quantity,  for  which  it  has  been  constructed ;  and  if  the  supply  should 
decrease  and  the  water  fall  in  the  race,  the  power  produced  would  not  only  be  lessened 
in  proportion  to  the  loss  of  height  and  volume,  but  the  percentage  obtained  from  the 
remaining  waterfall  would  be  decreased  fearfully.  It  is  therefore  imperative  to  keep 
the  head-race  full  all  the  time,  and  rather  to  stop  and  accumulate  water  than  to  use 
it  as  it  comes,  in  inadequate  quantity. 

In  cases  where  the  water-supply  is  often  insufficient,  and  where  no  very  large 
reservoir  or  pond  is  at  hand,  an  overshot  wheel  may  be  preferable  to  a  turbine,  be- 
cause it  will  give  larger  proportions  of  the  natural  power  with  decreasing  quantities  of 
water. 


348 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


SECTION  III. 
Steam-Boileks. 

285.  Importance. — Steam-boilers  form  a  very  important  part  of  the  equipment 
of  a  paper-mill,  and  yet  they  are  sometimes  treated  with  a  negligence  which  is 
criminal,  from  the  danger  to  which  every  j3erson  within  their  reach  is  exposed. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  depends  so  much  on  the  nature,  construction,  and  treat- 
ment of  the  boilers,  and  is  very  often  so  heavy  an  item  iii  the  list  of  expenses,  that 
too  much  care  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  their  selection  and  management. 

286.  Heating-Surface. — The  gases  resulting  from  tlie  combustion  of  coal  on  the 
grate  have,  on  starting,  a  temperature  of  about  2400  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  should 
transfer  as  much  of  this  heat  as  is  possible,  to  the  water  contained  in  the  boiler. 
To  create  a  good  draft  in  the  chimney,  a  temperature  of  about  600  degrees  above  that 
of  the  outside  air  is  required ;  1800  degrees,  or  three-quarters  of  all  the  heat  created, 
is  therefore  available.  The  boiler  must  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  absorbing  all  of 
these  1800  degrees. 

The  rapidity  with  which  heat  is  transferred  from  one  body  to  another  is  propor- 
tionate to  the  difference  of  temperature  between  them  ;  the  gases  of  combustion 
should  therefore  be  conducted  in  such  a  course  along  the  boiler  that  this  difference 
will  be  at  all  points  as  large,  and  as  uniformly  the  same,  as  possible — an  object  which 
will  be  best  attained,  if  the  gases  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  coldest  part  just 
before  escaping  into  the  smoke-stack,  and  with  the  hottest  part  immediately  after 
leaving  the  furnace. 

The  water  being  fed  in  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  boiler,  it  follows  from  the  rule 
just  given,  that  the  gases  should  pass  first  along  the  upper  hottest  portions,  descend 
gradually  to  the  colder  lower  ones,  and  leave  near  the  entrance  of  the  feed-water. 

That  portion  of  the  shell,  which  is  covered  with  water  inside  and  exposed  to  fire 
or  hot  gases  outside,  is  the  heating-surface.  The  capacity  of  a  boiler  for  raising 
steam  is  directly  proportionate  to  this  heating-surface,  the  size  of  which,  expressed  in 
square  feet,  indicates — if  the  boiler  is  otherwise  correctly  constructed  and  supplied 
with  a  sufficient  grate-surface — its  value  better  than  a  certain  number  of  horse-power. 

The  size  of  the  heating-surface  which  is  to  represent  one-horse  power  has  not 
been  established  by  the  trade,  and  the  seller  is  therefore  at  liberty  to  represent  the 
boiler  as  powerful  as  his,  sometimes  elastic,  conscience  will  admit. 

Fifteen  feet  heating-surface  at  least  should  be  allowed  for  one-horse  power, 
although  one-half  of  it  may  by  forced  firing  be  made  to  evaporate  the  same  quantity 
of  water. 


STEAM-BOILERS. 


349 


In  calculating  the  power  of  a  boiler,  it  is  to  be  considered,  that  the  lower,  nearly- 
horizontal  part  of  internal  flues  or  tubes,  owing  to  the  difficulty  with  which  bubbles 
of  steam  escape  from  under  them,  are  found  to  be  much  less  effective  than  the  lateral 
and  upper  surfaces.  To  obtain  therefore  the  real  useful  heating-surface,  we  have  to 
deduct  nearly  one-third  from  the  total  one  of  the  tubes  or  flues.  On  an  average  the 
effective  heating-surface  is  from  \  to  I  of  the  total  heating-surface. 

It  is  always  safer  to  buy  a  boiler  of  a  fixed  amount  of  heating-surface  than  of  a 
number  of  undefined  horse-power. 

287.  Combustion. — The  useful  parts  of  all  fuel  consist  of  the  element  carbon, 
which  constitutes  the  solid  parts,  and  of  combinations  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  the 
forms  of  defiant  gas,  pitch,  tar,  naphtha,  &c.  Both  these  elements,  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, are,  through  the  process  of  combustion,  combined  in  gaseous  form  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  and  escape  as  carbonic  acid  (CO2)  and  water  (HO). 

If  the  disengaged  carbon  is  chilled  by  a  cold  draft  or  otherwise  below  the  tem- 
perature of  ignition,  before  coming  in  contact  with  oxygen,  it  constitutes,  while 
floating  in  the  gas,  smoke,  and  when  dej)0sited  on  solid  bodies,  soot.  But,  if  the 
disengaged  carbon  is  maintained  at  the  temperature  of  ignition,  and  supplied  with 
oxygen  sufficient  for  its  combustion,  it  burns,  while  floating  in  the  inflammable  gas, 
with  a  red,  yellow,  or  white  flame. 

If  the  boiler,  or  more  properly  its  heating-surface,  is  small,  and  the  firing  hurried 
in  order  to  produce  enough  steam,  the  combustion  must  be  imperfect,  and  a  loss  of  fuel 
will  be  the  consequence.  A  large  heating-surface,  may,  compared  with  a  small  one, 
save  in  one  year  the  cost  of  a  boiler  in  fuel. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiments  and  calculation  that  it  takes  about  24  pounds 
of  air,  to  furnish  enough  oxygen  for  the  combustion  of  one  j)ound  of  coal,  and  to 
dilute  the  gases  properly. 

It  seems  evident  that  such  a  large  amount  of  air  as  24  pounds,  equal  to  650 
cubic  feet,  for  one  pound  of  fuel,  cannot  be  introduced  within  the  furnace  without 
artificial  means  or  draft. 

288.  Draft. — This  draft  is  usually  produced  by  a  chimney,  and  sometimes  by  a 
fan  or  other  blowing  machine. 

The  gases  inside  of  a  chimney  are  expanded  by  heat,  and  therefore  lighter  than 
those  outside,  and  the  draft  is  proportionate  to  the  difference  in  weight  between  the 
column  of  gases  inside  and  that  of  an  equal  column  or  volume  of  air  outside.  The 
efficiency  of  a  chimney  depends  therefore  principally  on  the  height  of  its  crown  above 
the  fire-grate.  Several  formulae  have  been  proposed  by  which  it  is  to  be  calculated, 
but  local  experience  has  usually  the  deciding  voice. 

It  is,  however,  advisable  to  build  the  smoke-stack  high  enough,  to  answer  not 
only  present  demands,  but  also  increased  ones  which  may  be  made  in  the  future. 

Small  pieces  of  coal  which  have  escaped  through  the  chimney,  can  frequently 
be  found  in  the  screens,  and  sometimes  in  the  paper,  but  if  the  stack  is  very  high, 


350 


GENEBAL  BEMARKS. 


the  smoke  will  be  carried  off  to  a  distance,  before  its  floating  solid  parts  can  reach 
the  ground, — a  great  advantage,  especially  where  soft  or  bituminous  coal  is  used. 

As  a  rule  which  will  answer  in  most  cases,  a  chimney  may  be  built  to  a  height  of 
twenty-five  times  its  inside  diameter  or  width  in  the  clear.  The  area  of  the  width 
of  a  chimney  can  be  made,  0.16,  or  I  the  area  of  the  fire-grate,  if  the  latter  is  of  the 
ordinary  construction,  or  equal  to  the  sum  total  of  the  area  of  the  flues  in  any  one 
place  on  the  course  of  the  hot  gases. 

The  hot  gases  cool  off,  contract,  and  consequently  require  less  room  as  they 
ascend  through  the  chimney,  and  many  scientific  writers  therefore  recommend  build- 
ing the  stacks  conical  or  pyramidal  inside  and  outside,  that  is,  narrower  towards 
the  top  than  at  the  bottom. 

It  has,  however,  been  lately  found  that  smoke-stacks,  constructed  as  inverted 
cones,  or  wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  give  a  better  draft.  This  contradiction 
of  the  long-followed  theory  is  in  practical  use  on  most  locomotives  and  in  the  brick 
chimneys  of  numerous  factories,  and  it  may  be  stated,  that  such  stacks  are  much  lower 
than  anybody  would  dare  to  build  them  on  the  contraction  plan,  and  that  they  gen- 
erally give  satisfaction. 

They  are  perfectly  perpendicular  outside,  and  are  made  funnel-shaped  inside  by 
means  of  a  double  wall.  The  outside  wall  may,  for  instance,  start  at  the  bottom 
with  a  full  brick  of  9  inches,  and  run  out  at  the  crown  with  one-half  brick,  or  4^ 
inches,  while  the  inside  wall  is  only  half  a  brick,  or  4|  inches,  thick,  parallel  with 
the  outside  one,  connected  with  it  at  intervals  by  a  brick  or  binder,  but  leaving  a 
few  inches  distance  between  the  two.  This  inside  lining  is  only  carried  up  for  a 
part  of  the  height,  and  then  broken  off,  thus  leaving  the  top  considerably  wider  than 
the  lower  part. 

The  foundation  of  a  chimney  should  be  as  solid  as  a  rock,  as  it  has  to  sustain 
the  enormous  weight  of  the  bricks  which  are  piled  upon  it.  The  slightest  sinking 
of  a  part  of  the  foundation  may  cause  the  top  to  lean  over  and  perhaps  to  fall. 

Access  must  be  provided  to  the  inside  of  the  stack,  through  an  iron  door  or 
through  an  arch  near  the  bottom,  for  the  removal  of  the  ashes  which  will  gather 
there  in  the  course  of  time. 

The  hot  gases  always  carry  some  fine  dust  or  coal  along,  and  deposit  them  on 
parts  of  the  boiler  over  which  they  pass ;  the  portion  of  the  heating-surface  thus 
covered,  is  ineffective,  and  it  is  therefore  imperative  that  the  flues  and  boiler-surfaces 
should  be  frequently  cleaned,  and  doors  must  be  provided  for  that  purpose. 

289.  Grate-Surface  and  Firing. — The  ordinary  rate  of  combustion  for  factory 
boilers  is,  according  to  Rankine,  from  12  to  16  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  on  every 
square  foot  of  grate-surface,  the  size  of  which  may  be  approximately  determined  from 
this.  The  same  writer  not  only  recommends  a  sufficiently  large  grate-surface,  but 
warns  us  against  any  increase  of  its  size  beyond  the  prescribed  limits,  because  too 
much  air  would  then  be  admitted,  and  absorb  a  great  deal  of  the  heat  without  being 
of  any  use. 

The  admission  of  air  can,  however,  be  well  regulated  by  the  damper,  and  we 


STEAM-BOILERS. 


351 


cannot  conceive  why  a  large  grate-surface,  which  permits  slow  combustion  with  little 
draft  and  a  light  covering  of  fuel,  should  be  objectionable. 

We  have  lately  seen  a  system  of  boilers  which  confirms  this  opinion.  They  are 
twin  boilers,  consisting  of  a  lower  cylinder,  fitted  with  2-  or  3-inch  flues,  and  an 
upper  plain  cylinder.  They  are  not  walled-in  in  the  ordinary  manner ;  the  lower 
cylinder,  resting  with  its  ends  only  in  the  two  short  walls,  hangs  free,  so  that  the  fire 
can  play  all  around  it.  The  upper  cylinder  rests  above  the  lower  one  in  the  same 
two  end  walls,  and  the  long  side  walls  are  arched  up,  so  that  they  join  it  all  along 
on  both  sides.  This  brings  the  upper  half,  or  its  steam-room,  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  flames,  while  the  lower  half  is  open  to  the  fire,  like  the  lower  flue-cylinder, 
from  which  it  is  not  separated  by  any  arches  or  partitions.  The  grate  occupies  the 
whole  space  between  the  four  walls  under  the  boiler,  and  is  three  or  four  times  as 
large  as  usual.  The  fire-doors  are  on  the  long  side  of  the  boiler  and  as  numerous  as 
the  room  permits.  When  two  such  boilers  are  required,  they  are  walled  in  between 
the  same  four  walls  and  above  one  common  grate  without  any  separating  walls.  The 
grate  being  very  wide,  it  is  then  necessary  to  have  fire-doors  on  both  long  sides.  The 
fire  or  hot  gases,  after  having  passed  around  the  lower  cylinder  and  below  the  upper 
one,  are  conducted  to  the  outside  at  the  end,  which  in  ordinary  boilers  contains  the 
-  fire-doors,  and  descend  from  there  through  iron  conduits  into  the  flues  of  the  lower 
cylinder,  through  which  they  pass  to  the  stack.  The  grate  should  be  at  a  convenient 
height  above  the  ground  for  the  work  of  the  fireman,  and  as  the  lowest  part  of  the 
boiler  must  be  at  some  distance  above  the  fuel,  the  whole  structure  becomes  neces- 
sarily very  high.  The  large  grate-surface  is  slightly  covered  with  coal,  which  is 
thrown  in  through  each  door  in  regular  succession,  and  thus  kept  uniformly 
spread.  Very  little  draft  is  required,  and  the  combustion  seems  to  be  perfect.  These 
boilers  are  in  operation  at  the  paper-mills  of  Mr.  George  B.  Connard,  Reading,  Pa., 
and  at  the  works  of  the  American  Wood-Paper  Company,  at  Royer's  Ford,  Pa.,  and 
we  have  been  informed  that  they  furnish  in  one  case,  with  7  tons  of  coal,  as  much 
steam  as  others,  which  had  been  previously  used,  would  produce  with  10  tons ;  and 
that  in  the  other  the  consumption  of  coal  had  been  reduced  by  their  introduction 
from  20  to  9  tons  for  exactly  the  same  work. 

If  a  boiler  is  provided  with  only  a  small  grate-surface,  the  necessary  amount  of 
combustion  of  fuel  cannot  take  place  without  a  strong  draft,  or  in  other  words,  the 
air  must  be  forced  through  the  coal  and  along  the  boiler  with  great  rapidity,  some- 
times so  fast  that  it  can  neither  become  well  heated  nor  thoroughly  deprived  of  its 
oxygen.  The  necessity  for  a  strong  draft  indicates,  therefore,  that  the  grate-surface  is 
not  sufficient ;  and  it  would  probably  result  in  a  great  saving  of  fuel  for  many  boilers 
if  their  flre-places  were  extended  and  their  drafts  reduced. 

Smoke  is  not  only  a  nuisance,  but  also  a  loss  of  as  much  unburnt  coal ;  it  escapes 
in  thick  clouds  when  the  fire-doors  are  opened  and  fresh,  especially  finely  divided, 
coal  is  thrown  in.  The  cold  air  reduces  the  temperature  while  the  draft  carries  off 
small  particles  of  coal  untouched. 


352 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


A  simple  way  to  prevent  this  loss,  to  some  extent,  which  is  applicable  to  any- 
common  steam-boiler,  consists  in  the  division  of  the  grate  into  two  separate  parts  by 
a  brick  wall  in  the  middle  parallel  with  the  grate-bars.  Each  division  has  a  separate 
door,  and  while  the  heat  is  greatest  in  one  of  them,  fresh  coal  is  thrown  into  the 
other ;  the  nnconsumed  coal  which  is  carried  off  by  the  draft,  mingles  with  the  flames 
from  the  hot  division,  and  is  thus  burnt  up.  The  sudden  changes  of  temperature, 
which  are  so  injurious  to  the  boilers,  caused  by  the  opening  of  the  fire-door,  are 
thereby  also  in  a  measure  prevented. 

A  constant  stream  of  fresh  air  is  often  conducted  into  the  fire-hearth  through 
channels  in  the  brickwork,  wherein  the  air  on  its  passage  is  partly  heated. 

Ordinary  grates  are  composed  of  straight,  narrow  cast-iron  bars,  laid  alongside 
of  one  another,  and  leaving  for  a  coal-fire,  openings  enough  between  them  to  amount 
altogether  to  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  grate-surface.  (Redtenbacher,  Resultate 
f  ur  den  Ifaschinenbau.) 

These  bars,  when  heated,  expand,  and  become  frequently  warped  into  such 
crooked  forms,  that  they  have  to  be  replaced  by  new  ones.  Many  patent  grate-bars 
have  been  constructed  with  a  view  to  prevent  any  change  of  their  outer  form,  or  of 
the  open  space  for  the  admittance  of  air,  by  providing  room  for  expansion  and  con- 
traction in  the  bars  themselves.  Some  of  them  are  quite  successful,  and  not  only 
save  coal,  but  also  last  much  longer  than  the  common  bars. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  sprinkling  of  water  over  coal  will  improve 
combustion ;  the  water  must  be  evaporated  and  transformed  into  steam,  absorbing 
thus  a  great  deal  of  heat  at  the  exjjense  of  the  fuel. 

The  coal  must  be  spread  on  the  grates  uniformly,  and  not  too  thickly,  and  if 
stirred  at  all,  it  is  to  be  done  from  below. 

A  good  fireman  can  economize  more  than  all  the  inventions  which  have  been 
made  for  this  purpose  are  able  to  do,  while  a  careless  or  ignorant  one  may  waste  many 
times  the  amount  of  his  wages  in  fuel. 

Several  years  ago  prizes  were  offered  to  such  firemen,  as  should  prove  themselves 
most  efficient  at  a  competitive  trial,  at  Miihlhausen,  then  in  France,  now  belonging  to 
Germany.  Forty-four  offered  themselves,  and  the  best  eighteen  were  selected  from 
the  number ;  each  one  fired  up  during  ten  hours  with  the  same  boiler,  fuel,  &c.,  and 
it  was  found  that  the  best  fireman  could  evaporate  nearly  twice  as  much  water  with 
the  same  amount  of  coal  under  exactly  the  same  circumstances  as  the  worst  one. 
To  appreciate  this  result,  it  must  be  considered  that  only  experienced  men  offered 
themselves  for  the  trial,  and  that  only  one-half  of  these  were  admitted. 

290,  Construction  of  Steam-Boilers  and  Test. — The  designs  for  the  construction 
of  steam-boilers  are  so  numerous  that  a  description  cannot  be  attempted  in  this  book, 
but  we  shall  say  a  few  words  which  apply  to  them  all. 

It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  a  thickness  of  |  inch  is  the  most  favorable 
to  sound  riveting  and  caulking  of  boiler-plates,  and  they  are  therefore  seldom  used 
much  thicker  or  thinner. 


STEAM-BOILERS. 


353 


If  a  cylindrical  boiler  is  required  to  endure  an  unusually  high  pressure,  the 
necessary  increase  of  strength  must  be  attained,  not  by  increased  thickness  of  the 
plates,  but  by  diminution  of  the  diameter  (see  article  11,  page  30). 

The  flat  ends  of  cylindrical  boilers  are  given  about  once  and  a  half  the  thickness 
of  the  cylindrical  portions;  cast-iron  should  not  be  used  for  them  nor  for  any  other 
part  of  the  shell.  These  flat  ends  are  usually  connected  with  each  other  by  longitu- 
dinal stays,  and  sometimes  with  the  cylinder  by  means  of  angle  iron,  but  such  rings 
are  liable  to  split  at  the  angles,  and  it  is  therefore  preferable  to  bend  the  edges  of  the 
flat  ends  and  rivet  them  to  the  cylinders. 

Plates  which  overlap  one  another  should  have  the  overlapping  joints  facing  up- 
wards, on  the  side  next  to  the  water,  that  they  may  not  intercept  bubbles  of  steam  on 
their  way  upwards.  The  joints  in  horizontal  flues  should  be  placed  so  that  they  do 
not  oppose  the  current  of  the  gases.  Those  parts  of  boilers  which  are  exposed  to 
more  severe  or  more  irregular  strains  than  the  rest,  or  to  a  more  intense  heat,  should 
be  made  of  the  finest  iron. 

Lately  there  have  been  some  steam-boilers  built  of  steel  plates.  As  they  have 
about  one-half  more  tenacity  than  iron  ones,  they  can  be  made  lighter,  and  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  steel  boilers  will  take  the  place  of  iron  ones  at  some  future  day. 

In  paper-mills  the  demands  for  steam  are  often  so  sudden  and  large,  that  some 
of  the  water  will  be  carried  along  mechanically  through  the  violence  of  the  motion, 
unless  a  large  store-room  for  both  water  and  steam,  but  especially  for  the  latter,  is 
provided.  A  steady  pressure  is  particularly  required  for  the  paper-machine,  and 
large  boilers,  with  plenty  of  steam-room,  will  be  more  apt  to  furnish  it  than  small 
ones. 

Every  boiler,  before  being  put  into  operation  or  walled  in,  should  be  tested  with 
a  hydraulic  pressure  twice  as  great  as  the  highest  steam-pressure  allowed  to  it.  Water- 
pressure  is  used  on  account  of  the  absence  of  danger,  in  case  any  part  of  the  boiler 
should  give  way. 

291.  Feed-Water. — If  possible,  the  boilers  should  be  fed  with  hot  water ;  not 
only  because  as  much  heat  as  it  contains  is  directly  saved,  but  also  for  the  reason  that 
the  injection  of  cold  water  chills  and  may  injure  the  hot  plates.  There  are  plenty 
of  sources  in  a  paper-mill  from  which  hot  water  may  be  obtained,  but  the  dryers  of 
the  paper-machine  are  the  principal  ones.  The  condensed  steam  is  conducted  through 
a  pipe  into  a  reservoir  or  tub,  and  if  too  hot  to  be  pumped,  it  is  therein  mixed  with 
fresh  water  and  forced  into  the  boiler  by  the  feed-pump.  These  pumps  refuse  to 
work  with  highly  heated  or  boiling  water,  and  large  quantities  of  escaped  steam 
from  steam-engines,  by  which  the  temperature  of  the  feed-water  might  be  raised  to 
the  boiling-point,  are  often  allowed  to  blow  out  into  the  open  air,  because  they  would 
heat  the  water  too  much. 

Such  steam  can,  however,  be  utilized  by  being  conducted  through  long  coils  of 
pipe,  fastened  in  an  upright  steam-tight  cylinder  of  boiler  iron,  interposed  between  the 
pump  and  the  boiler.    The  feed-pump  forces  the  hot  water  first  into  this  cylinder  or 

45 


354 


GENERAL  EEMABK8. 


heater,  where  it  acquires  a  very  high  temperature  in  contact  with  the  steam  coil,  and 
thence  through  the  usual  check-valve  into  the  boiler.  The  feed-water  does  not  pass 
through  any  pump  after  it  has  left  the  heater,  and  can,  therefore,  be  raised  to  any 
temperature. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  water  in  the  boiler  should  be  kept  at  the 
right  height  all  the  time,  and  since  the  regular  feed-pump  may  get  out  of  order,  there 
should  be  a  second  one,  or  some  other  means,  provided,  by  which  the  supply  can  be 
kept  up  in  such  a  case.  Giflfard's  injector,  or  steam-pumps,  may  be  recommended  for 
this  purpose,  on  account  of  their  independence  of  any  gearings  or  motors,  but  as  all 
of  them  consume  steam,  and  some  will  not  feed  with  hot  water,  the  regular  feed-jDump 
is  always  to  be  used  in  preference. 

A  valve  must  be  provided  at  the  lowest  point  of  every  boiler,  through  which  it 
can  be  emptied ;  this  valve  or  blow-off  cock  must  be  frequently  opened  to  enable  the 
deposits  of  salts  or  mineral  matters  to  escape  before  they  have  had  time  to  solidify. 
According  to  the  quality  of  the  feed-water  this  has  to  be  done  several  times,  or  only 
once  a  day,  and  the  boilers  should  in  all  cases  be  emptied  entirely  at  regular  intervals. 

Some  substances  occurring  in  feed-water  seem  to  stick  so  closely  to  iron  that  they 
cannot  be  removed  by  blowing  off  water ;  they  must  be  chemically  dissolved,  and 
numerous  powders  and  liquids  are  sold  at  high  prices  for  this  purpose,  but  the  intro- 
duction of  one  or  more  gallons  of  common  coal  oil  or  petroleum  will  answer  in  many 
cases  just  as  well  or  better. 

292.  Explosions. — We  quote  here  from  remarks  made  on  this  subject  by  W.  T. 
Macquorn  Rankine,  Professor  of  Engineering  and  Mechanics  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  in  his  Manual  of  the  Steam- Engine  and  other  Prime  Movers — a  work  which 
has  furnished  much  data  for  this  chapter : 

"  Explosions  result : 

"  I.  From  original  weakness.  This  cause  is  to  be  obviated  by  due  attention  to  the  laws  of  the 
strength  of  materials  in  the  designing  and  construction  of  the  boiler,  and  by  testing  it  properly  before 
it  is  subjected  to  steam-pressure. 

"  II.  From  weakness  produced  by  gradual  corrosion  of  the  material  of  ivhich  the  boiler  is  made.  This 
is  to  be  obviated  by  frequent  and  careful  inspection  of  the  boiler,  and  especially  of  the  parts  exposed 
to  the  direct  action  of  the  fire. 

"  III.  From  wilful  or  accidental  obstruction  or  overloading  of  the  safety-valve.  This  is  to  be  obviated 
by  so  constructing  safety-valves  as  to  be  incapable  of  accidental  obstruction,  and  by  placing  at  least 
one  safety-valve  on  each  boiler  beyond  the  control  of  the  fireman. 

"  IV.  From  the  sudden  production  of  steam  of  a  pressure  greater  than  the  boiler  can  bear,  in  a  quan- 
tity greater  than  the  safety-valve  can  discharge.  There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  some  points  of 
detail  in  the  manner  in  which  this  phenomenon  is  produced,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  its  primary 
causes  are,  first,  the  overheating  of  a  portion  of  the  plates  of  the  boiler  (being  in  most  cases  that  por- 
tion called  the  'crown  of  the  furnace,'  which  is  directly  over  the  fire),  so  that  a  store  of  heat  is  accumu- 
lated, and  secondly,  the  sudden  contact  of  much  overheated  plates  with  Avater,  so  that  the  heat  stored 
is  suddenly  expended  in  the  production  of  a  large  quantity  of  steam  at  a  high  pressure. 

"  Some  engineers  hold  that  no  portion  of  the  plates  can  thus  become  overheated,  unless  the  level 
of  the  surface  of  the  water  sinks  so  low  as  to  leave  that  portion  of  the  plates  above  it  uncovered;  others 


STEAM- BOILEBS. 


355 


maintain,  with  Mr.  Boutigny,  that  when  a  metallic  surface  is  heated  above  a  certain  elevated  tempera- 
ture, water  is  prevented  from  actually  touching  it,  either  by  a  direct  repulsion  or  by  a  film  or  layer  of 
very  dense  vapor,  and  that,  when  this  has  once  taken  place,  the  plate,  being  left  dry,  may  go  on  accu- 
mulating heat  and  rising  in  temperature  for  an  indefinite  time,  until  some  agitation  or  the  introduction 
of  cold  water  shall  produce  contact  between  the  water  and  the  plate  and  bring  about  an  explosion. 
All  authorities,  however,  are  agreed  that  explosions  of  this  class  are  to  be  prevented  by  the  follow- 
ing means : 

"  1.  By  avoiding  the  forcing  of  the  fires,  which  makes  the  boiler  produce  steam  faster  than 
the  rate  suited  to  its  size  and  surface. 

"  2.  By  the  regular,  constant,  and  sufficient  supply  of  feed-water,  whether  regulated  by  a 
self-acting  apparatus  or  the  attention  of  the  engineman  to  the  water-gauge.  And 

"  3.  Should  the  plates  have  become  actually  overheated,  by  abstaining  from  the  sudden  in- 
troduction of  feed-water  (which  would  inevitably  produce  an  explosion)  and  by  drawing  or 
extinguishing  the  fires,  and  blowing  off  both  the  steam  and  the  water  from  the  boiler." 

Steam-boilers  have  been  in  the  German  States  for  many  years  under  the  control 
of  the  governments,  and  the  vast  experience  gathered  during  that  time  has  been  used 
to  frame  a  new  law  for  their  construction,  which  has  lately  gone  in  operation  in  the 
EmjDire. 

As  the  sole  object  of  the  law  is  to  prevent  explosions,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
citizens  of  other  countries  to  learn  its  provisions.  They  deserve  to  be  recommended 
everywhere. 

The  following  extract,  translated  by  the  author,  contains  all  the  provisions  con- 
cerning such  stationary  boilers  as  are  used  in  paper-mills : 

I.  Construction  of  Steam-Boilers. 

"Sec.  1.  No  parts  of  a  steam-boiler,  which  come  in  contact  with  the  fire  or  hot  gases,  shall  be 
made  of  cast  iron,  if  their  inside  diameter  is  over  10  inches  for  cylindrical  and  over  12  inches  for 
spherical  forms. 

"  Sec.  2.  The  highest  part  of  all  fire-flues,  passing  inside  or  outside  of  the  boiler,  must  be  at  least 
4  inches  below  the  fixed  point,  beneath  which  the  surface  of  the  water  is  not  allowed  to  fall. 

"  This  regulation,  however,  applies  not  to  boilers  composed  of  tubes  of  less  than  4  inches  diameter, 
nor  to  flues  in  which  there  is  no  danger,  that  the  iron  in  contact  with  the  steam-room  may  become  red- 
hot.  The  danger  of  overheating  may  be  considered  excluded  if  the  flre  passes  a  heating-surface,  covered 
with  water,  of  twenty  times  the  area  of  the  grates  for  natural  draft,  and  forty  times  for  artificial  draft, 
before  it  can  reach  that  portion  of  the  shell  which  is  in  contact  with  steam. 

II.  Steam-Boiler  Fixtures. 

"  Sec.  3.  Every  steam-boiler  must  be  provided  with  a  feed-valve,  which  is  closed  by  the  pressure 
inside  of  the  boiler  as  soon  as  the  feeding  apparatus  stops  to  force  water  in. 

"  Sec.  4.  Every  steam-boiler  must  be  provided  with  two  reliable  feed  arrangements,  not  depending 
on  one  or  the  same  shaft  or  motor,  and  each  one  of  which  separately  is  capable  to  supply  the  boiler 
with  all  the  water  required.  Several  permanently  connected  boilers  are  for  this  purpose  to  be  con- 
sidered as  one. 

"  Sec.  5.  Every  steam-boiler  must  be  provided  with  a  water-glass  and  with  a  second  arrangement, 
by  means  of  which  the  height  of  water  inside  can  be  known.    Each  one  of  these  fixtures  must  have  a 


356 


GENERAL  BE3IARKS. 


separate  connection  with  the  interior  of  the  boiler,  unless  the  connection  common  to  both  is  made  by 
means  of  a  pipe,  not  less  than  3  inches  inside  diameter. 

"  Sec.  6.  If  gauge-cocks  are  to  be  used,  the  lowest  one  of  them  is  to  be  placed  on  a  level  with  the 
fixed  point,  below  which  the  water  is  not  allowed  to  fall.  All  these  cocks  must  be  constructed  so  that 
they  can  be  freed  from  incrustations  by  pushing  through  them  in  a  straight  line. 

"  Sec.  7.  The  point  below  which  the  surface  of  the  water  is  not  allowed  to  fall,  is  to  be  marked  on 
the  water-glass  and  on  the  iron,  or  mason  work  of  the  boiler,  in  a  distinct  and  striking  manner. 

"  Sec.  8.  Every  steam-boiler  must  be  provided  with  at  least  one  reliable  f-afety-valve.  Two  safety- 
valves  are  sufficient  for  several  boilers,  if  they  have  one  steam-room  in  common,  from  which  they  can- 
not separately  be  closed  out.  Steamboat,  locomobil,  and  locomotive  boilers  must  always  have  at  least 
two  safety-valves. 

"  Sec.  9.  Every  steam-boiler  must  be  provided  with  a  reliable  pressure-gauge,  on  which  the  highest 
allowance  of  steam  pressure  is  to  be  marked  in  a  distinct  and  striking  way. 

"Sec.  10.  The  highest  steam  pressure  allowed,  the  name  of  the  maker,  and  the  year  when  it  was 
built,  must  be  marked  on  every  steam-boiler  in  a  permanent  and  distinctly  visible  manner. 

III.  Testing  of  Steam-Boilers. 

"Sec.  11.  Every  steam-boiler  before  being  set  up,  walled  in,  or  covered  over,  must  be  tested  with 
water  pressure,  while  all  its  openings  are  well  closed.  Boilers  which  are  limited  to  five  atmospheres 
overpressure  (75  pounds)  or  less,  are  to  be  tested  with  twice  the  highest  pressure  which  they  are  allowed 
to  carry.  Boilers,  intended  for  higher  pressures,  require  a  test  with  five  atmospheres  added  to  the 
allowed  pressure.  The  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  is  understood  to  be  that  of  one  kilogramme  on  one 
square  centimeter  (15  pounds  English  on  one  square  inch).  The  sides  of  the  boiler  must  stand  the 
test  without  showing  any  permanent  change  of  form  or  leakage.  They  are  considered  leaky  (not  tight) 
if  the  water  at  its  highest  pressure  escapes  through  the  joints  in  other  forms  than  that  of  mist  or 
fine  drops. 

"  Sec.  12.  If  boilers  have  been  repaired  at  the  shop,  or  laid  bare  at  the  mill,  for  this  purpose,  they 
have  to  be  subjected  to  the  same  tests  as  new  ones.  If  the  inner  flue  of  a  boiler,  or  the  fire-box  of  a 
locomotive  boiler,  has  to  be  taken  out  for  repairs  or  removal,  or  if  one  or  more  plates  of  a  cylinder- 
boiler  have  to  be  renewed,  the  boilers  must  be  tested  before  being  again  used,  though  it  may  not  be 
necessary  to  lay  the  whole  boiler  bare. 

"  Sec.  13.  The  pressure,  used  at  the  test,  is  to  be  measured  with  a  sufficiently  high,  open  mercury 
gauge,  or  with  the  gauge  carried  by  the  examining  official.  There  must  be  some  fixture  on  every 
steam-boiler,  which  enables  the  examining  official  to  attach  a  pressure  gauge. 

IV.  Erection  of  Steam-Boilers. 

"Sec.  14.  Steam-boilers,  which  are  intended  for  more  than  four  atmospheres  overpressure,  and 
those,  in  which  the  sum  obtained,  by  multiplyiug  the  number  of  square  meters  (11  square  feet  English) 
of  heating-surface  with  the  number  of  atmospheres  in  the  steam  pressure,  is  over  twenty,  are  not 
permitted  to  be  located  under  rooms  which  are  frequented  by  men.  They  cannot  be  admitted  into 
such  buildings  if  there  is  an  arched  or  timber  ceiling  above  the  boilers.  Every  boiler  situated  under 
rooms  frequented  by  men  must  be  provided  with  arrangements  by  means  of  which  the  influence  of  the 
fire  on  the  boiler  can  be  immediately  stopped. 

"  Steam-boilers  composed  of  tubes  of  less  than  4  inches  inside  diameter,  are  exempt  from  these 
regulations. 

"  Sec.  15.  A  space  of  3  inches  must  be  left  between  the  outside  of  the  brickwork,  inclosing  the 
boiler,  and  the  surrounding  walls  of  the  building.  This  open  space  may,  however,  be  covered  on  top 
and  at  the  sides." 


STEAM- BOILEBS. 


367 


293.  Safety-Boilers. — A  large  number  of  steam-boilers  have  within  late  years  been 
constructed  in  a  manner  which  makes  destructive  explosions  impossible. 

The  strongest  boilers  are  those  which  are  entirely  composed  of  tubes,  and  small 
cylinders  or  spheres.  They  are  not  only  the  strongest  but  also  the  safest,  because  a 
cylinder  of  very  small  diameter  cannot  hold  water  or  steam  enough  to  do  any  serious 
damage  if  exploding. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  safety-boilers  is  composed  of  any  desired  number  of 
cast-iron  balls,  the  several  open-curved  necks  of  which  are  turned  so  as  to  fit  into  one 
another ;  iron  bolts  j)assing  through  a  number  of  them,  hold  them  tight  together  in 
the  joints.  The  balls  are  of  8  inches  external  diameter,  |  inches  thick,  and  several  of 
them  cast  in  one  piece,  or  one  alone,  may  form  an  element.  Strings  of  balls  thus 
composed  and  connected  are  laid  in  an  inclined  position  across  the  furnace  and  grate; 
the  fire  passes  around  them  and  goes  to  the  chimney  through  a  flue  below. 

Whenever  the  pressure  inside  of  this  boiler  is  too  high,  the  balls  expand  where 
the  spherical  form  is  preserved,  and  contract  in  the  line  of  the  openings  or  necks, 
the  joints  thus  open  like  as  many  safety-valves,  and  the  steam  escapes  without  doing 
any  harm.    If  a  ball  breaks  or  bursts,  the  destruction  is  confined  to  it  alone. 

These  boilers  are  perfectly  safe,  but  they  have  some  disadvantages.  The  spherical 
elements,  being  in  an  inclined  position,  do  not  discharge  all  their  contents  when  the 
boiler  is  emptied ;  a  portion  remains  in  the  lowest  parts,  which  form  bags  or  cavities. 

Sediment  and  incrustation  soon  fill  up  these  cavities,  and  reduce  the  heating- 
surface  by  as  much  as  they  cover. 

Though  the  inventor  and  maker  has  succeeded  in  casting  the  balls  in  a  very 
superior  manner,  breaks  will  yet  occur,  and  necessitate  the  stoppage  of  the  boiler  and 
replacement  of  the  broken  ball  by  a  new  one. 

Numerous  other  inventors  have  made  combinations  of  wrought-iron  tubes  or 
pipes,  which  are  preferable  to  castings,  because  they  are  less  apt  to  break,  and  because 
their  thinner  shells  admit  of  a  quicker  transmission  of  heat  from  the  gases  to  the  water. 
The  pipes  are  connected  in  almost  every  conceivable  form,  and  sometimes  also  com- 
pose the  fire-grate  in  the  place  of  bars. 

The  capacity  for  water  and  steam  in  all  these  boilers  is  necessarily  very  limited, 
and  no  large  amount  of  either  can  be  stored  up.  To  obviate  this  diflficulty,  steam- 
elrums  are  added  on  top  and  water-drums  below.  If  these  reservoirs  are  not  in  con- 
tact with  fire,  they  will  not  contribute  to  the  economy  of  fuel,  but  they  may  be  used 
with  perfect  safety,  provided  they  be  strong  enough  to  endure  the  highest  pressure 
which  will  ever  be  raised  in  the  boiler. 

In  paper-mills  large  quantities  of  steam  are  often  suddenly  drawn  from  the 
boilers,  while  at  other  times  very  little  is  required. 

The  use  of  small  tubes  or  balls,  on  which  safety-boilers  are  based,  excludes  the 
possibility  of  providing  steam  and  water-room  of  a  capacity  proportionate  to  the 
large  heating-surface,  and  unfortunately  compels  the  proprietors  of  paper-mills  to 
adopt  other  systems. 


358 


GENEBAL  BEMARKS. 


To  overcome  this  difficulty  several  inventors  have  constructed  boilers,  which  are 
combinations  of  cylinder-boilers  with  systems  of  wrought-iron  tubes.  But  whatever 
device  may  be  used,  and  however  excellent  it  may  be  in  other  respects,  a  steam  gene- 
rator cannot  be  considered  a  safety-boiler,  if  fire  or  hot  gases  are  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  a  cylinder  of  more  than  4  inches  diameter,  which  contains  water  and 
forms  a  part  of  the  boiler. 

294.  Consumption  of  Fuel. — In  the  best  regulated  paper-mills,  where  all  the  power 
is  furnished  by  water,  and  rags  or  old  papers  constitute  the  raw  material,  from  |  to  1 
pound  of  good  Pennsylvania  coal  is  used  for  every  jiound  of  2:)aper  made. 


SECTION  IV. 
Steam-Engines. 

295.  Expansion. — The  steam-engine  has  been  much  im^Jroved  since  its  invention 
about  one  hundred  years  ago,  but  the  fundamental  principles  governing  its  construc- 
tion, are  yet  the  same  as  laid  down  by  Watt. 

The  power  of  the  steam-engine  is  derived  from  the  alternate  action  of  the  steam 
upon  the  two  sides  of  a  piston,  which  is  thus  moved  from  one  end  of  a  cylinder  to 
the  other,  the  reciprocating  motion  being  changed  into  a  rotary  one  by  means  of  a 
crank. 

We  suppose  the  piston  of  a  high-jiressure  engine,  for  an  example,  to  have  arrived 
at  one  end  of  its  course,  and  to  be  on  the  point  of  starting  to  return,  forced  by  steam 
admitted  into  the  narrow  space  behind  it,  while  the  empty  cylinder  in  front  communi- 
cates with  the  open  air.  If  the  steam  is  of  (30  pounds,  equal  to  4  atmospheres  over- 
pressure, its  real  pressure  will  be  75  pounds,  or  5  atmospheres,  which,  being  opposed 
by  one  atmosphere,  or  15  pounds  only  on  the  other  side,  pushes  the  piston  forward 
with  60  pounds  to  every  square  inch  of  its  surface. 

If  fresh  steam  is  admitted  constantly  during  the  whole  course  of  the  piston,  the 
largest  amount  of  power  of  which  the  cylinder  is  capable,  will  be  produced,  but  the 
steam  leaves  the  engine  with  nearly  its  full  pressure. 

If  we  take,  for  a  second  example,  a  cylinder  of  the  same  diameter,  but  of  twice 
its  length,  and  admit  only  the  same  amount  of  steam  for  each  stroke,  as  in  the  first 
example,  we  find  that,  after  the  fresh  steam  has  been  shut  off,  the  piston  is  yet  moved 
forward  to  the  other  end  by  the  steam,  which  filled  one-half  of  the  cylinder. 

This  second  half  of  the  movement  of  the  piston  is  produced  by  expansion,  and 
through  it,  if  extended  far  enough,  can  the  pressure  of  the  steam  be  utilized  and 
reduced  until  it  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  or  15  pounds. 


STEAM-  ENGINES.  359 

It  is  evident  that  all  the  power,  produced  by  expansion  in  the  second  example, 
with  the  same  quantity  of  steam  as  was  used  for  the  first  example,  is  clear  gain  as 
compared  with  the  latter,  and  though  this  is  not  exactly  so  in  practice,  it  yet  explains 
the  economy  of  expansion.  These  examples  show  also,  that  a  larger  cylinder  is  caj^a- 
ble  of  producing  the  same  power  with  less  steam  than  a  small  one,  or  that  engines  of 
ample  caj)acity  are  the  most  economical,  if  provided  with  projDer  arrangements  for 
expansion. 

296.  Condensation. — Another  way  of  increasing  the  power  of  an  engine  is,  to 
reduce  the  counter-pressure  by  the  creation  of  a  vacuum. 

The  steam,  instead  of  escaping  into  the  air,  is  for  this  purpose  conducted  into  an 
apparatus,  where  it  is  suddenly  condensed  by  contact  with  cold  water  finely  divided 
by  a  sprinkler.  The  water  used  for  this  condensation  is  thereby  highly  heated,  the 
counter-j^ressure  reduced  considerably  below  15  pounds,  and  the  power  exercised  on 
the  piston  increased  as  much. 

The  use  of  these  condensers  thus  enables  an  engine  to  work  with  very  low  steam- 
pressure,  and  reduces  the  danger  to  which  high  pressure  in  the  boilers  exposes  it. 

297.  Different  Systems  of  Engines,  and  Utilization  of  Escaping  Steam. — All  engines 
may  be  divided  into — 

I.  Non-condensing  or  high-pressure  engines  ; 
II.  Condensing  engines. 

High-pressure  engines  are  simj)le  in  construction,  easily  managed,  and  therefore 
generally  used  whenever  steam  is  only  an  auxiliary  power,  to  be  stopped  and  started 
according  to  the  state  of  the  water-power.  The  valve  which  admits  the  steam  is 
usually  regulated  by  a  governor,  which  is  set  in  motion  by  the  line-shaft.  If  the 
shaft  turns  too  fast  or  too  slow,  the  governor  closes  or  opens  the  valve,  letting  in  less 
or  more  steam  and  increasing  or  decreasing  the  expansion. 

The  escaping  steam  should  never  be  allowed  to  waste  directly  into  the  air ;  it 
can  be  made  useful  by  passing  through  a  coil  or  other  system  of  pipes  immersed  in 
water,  or  it  may  be  conducted  through  large  pipes  and  heat  the  building,  or  into  the 
mixing-pans  to  boil  the  liquors. 

In  some  mills,  which  run  by  steam-power  altogether,  the  escaping  steam  is  thor- 
oughly used  up  for  boiling  waste-paper  in  tubs,  and  by  heating  the  mill  and  the  feed- 
water  for  the  boilers.  One  mill,  which  from  waste-paper  and  with  steam-power  only, 
produces  5000  pounds  of  good  printing-paper  per  day,  economizes  so  well  that  direct 
steam  is  not  used  anywhere  except  in  the  steam-engines.  It  has  been  stated  to  us 
that  the  establishment  consumes  only  1500  j5ounds  of  coal  per  day  over  and  above 
the  amount,  which  would  be  required  if  the  power  were  furnished  by  water. 

The  dryers  form  a  natural  condenser  for  the  high-pressure  engines  which  are 
used  for  driving  paper-machines. 

Condensing  engines  require  large  quantities  of  water,  are  complicated  and  expen- 
sive, but  they  furnish  more  power  with  the  same  amount  of  fuel  than  any  other  kind. 
This  is  especially  the  case  when  high-pressure  steam  first  acts  in  a  small  cylinder, 


3G0 


GEJSfEBAL  BEMABKS. 


from  which  it  passes  into  a  larger  one,  where  it  propels  the  piston  by  expansion  and 
condensation. 

The  escaping  steam  can,  however,  be  so  well  utilized  in  many  paper-mills  that 
the  simpler  high-pressure  engines  answer  often  as  well  as  more  complicated  ones. 

It  is  indifferent  whether  an  upright  or  horizontal  engine  is  selected,  jDrovided  it 
be  a  good  one,  fastened  on  a  solid  foundation. 

298.  Power  of  Engines. — The  statement  that  a  steam-engine  gives  a  certain 
amount  of  horse-j30wer  must  be  made  in  connection  with  that  of  the  dimensions  of 
the  cylinder,  steam-pressure,  speed,  expansion,  &c.,  if  it  is  to  be  of  any  value.  A 
steam-engine  will  give  nearly  double  power  if  its  speed  is  doubled.  Fast-running 
engines  not  only  wear  out  soon,  but  get  more  easily  heated  and  out  of  order ;  and  while 
it  is  the  seller's  interest  to  speed  them  high  and  represent  them  more  powerful,  the 
purchaser's  is  just  the  reverse.  Steam-engines  should  therefore  be  purchased  accord- 
ing to  their  size,  but  not  by  the  horse-power. 

The  jjower  of  an  engine  is  the  total  mean  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  piston, 
less  the  pressure  against  it  in  pounds,  multiplied  with  the  velocity  of  the  piston 
in  feet  per  minute.  This  product  must  be  divided  by  33,000  if  the  theoretical  horse- 
power is  to  be  obtained ;  and  from  it  we  have  to  deduct  for  condensing  engines 
25  per  cent,  and  for  high-pressure  engines  13.1  per  cent,  loss  from  friction  and 
pumps,  in  order  to  find  the  actual  horse-power.  While  the  steam  is  expanding  in 
the  cylinder,  its  pressure  decreases  constantly,  and  to  make  an  exact  calculation  we 
have  to  determine  its  mean  pressure. 

The  following  table  gives  the  mean  pressure  for  steam  of  from  40  to  100  pounds 
and  grades  of  expansion  from  {  to  g.  An  expansion  of  i,  for  instance,  means  that 
fresh  steam  is  admitted  into  the  cylinder  for  |  of  a  stroke  or  of  the  length  of  the  cylin- 
der, while  only  during  the  last  quarter  the  piston  is  moved  by  the  expanding  steam : 


Pkessuee 

GRADE  OF  EXPANSION. 

IN 

Pounds. 

i 

3 
8 

1 

1 

a 

4 

7 

¥ 

40 

38.560 

37.333 

36.750 

33.860 

29.670 

27.964 

23.860 

15.395 

45 

43.368 

42.000 

41.341 

38.092 

33.378 

31.459 

26.842 

17.319 

50 

48.187 

46.666 

45.937 

42.325 

37.067 

34.955 

29.825 

19.243 

55 

53.005 

51.333 

50.530 

46.557 

40.775 

38.450 

32.807 

21.167 

60 

57.822 

55.999 

55.122 

50.790 

44.520 

41.946 

35.790 

23.090 

65 

62.640 

60.666 

59.715 

55.022 

48.228 

45.441 

38.772 

24.924 

70 

67.460 

65.333 

64.300 

59.255 

52.419 

48.937 

41.755 

26.694 

75 

72.278 

69.999 

68.893 

63.487 

56.127 

52.432 

44.737 

28.626 

80 

77.096 

75.666 

73.500 

67.720 

59.340 

55.928 

47.720 

30.790 

85 

81.914 

80.333 

78.093 

71.952 

63.048 

59.423 

50.702 

32.714 

90 

86.730 

83.999 

82.680 

76.180 

66.750 

62.919 

53.680 

34.638 

95 

91.548 

88.666 

87.273 

80.412 

70.458 

66.414 

56.662 

36.554 

100 

96.370 

93.333 

91.870 

84.650 

74.170 

69.910 

59.650 

38.480 

STEAM-  ENGINES. 


361 


If  we  have,  for  example,  a  high-pressure  engine  of  15  inches  diameter  of  piston, 
3  feet  stroke,  60  pounds  of  steam,  50  revolutions  per  minute,  and  an  expansion  of  \, 
the  steam  acts  on  a  piston  surface  of — 

 lYb.b  square  luches, 

and  the  mean  pressure  on  the  piston  for  a  steam-pressure  of  60  pounds  above  the 
atmosphere,  or  for  60  + 15  =  75  pounds,  is,  according  to  our  table,  63.487  pounds. 
The  atmospheric  counter-pressure,  which  is  equal  to  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
must  be  deducted  from  these  63.487,  and  leaves  48.487  pounds  as  the  available  pres- 
sure.   The  theoretical  power  is  therefore : 

Square  inches  Pressure  per  Feet  Revolutions  Strokes  during 
piston  surface.      square  inch.       stroke.      per  minute,    one  revolution. 

176.6     X     48.5     X     3     X     50     X     2         „^  , 

 =  i  7.85  horse-power, 

33,000 

One  horse-power. 

and  deducting  from  the  theoretical  power 

13.1  per  cent.,            =  10.20  lo.?s, 
we  obtain   


the  actual  horse-power  =  67.65 

299.  Losses  of  Power. — We  have  supposed  the  pressure  to  be  60  pounds,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  gauge ;  but  if  this  is  the  pressure  in  the  boilers,  the  steam  will  have  lost 
a  considerable  portion  before  it  reaches  the  engine ;  even  if  the  conducting-pipes  are 
short  and  well  covered,  the  difference  may  amount  to  many  pounds. 

The  cylinders  are  usually  not  so  well  covered  as  they  should  be,  and  lose  pres- 
sure by  the  radiation  of  heat. 

Water  takes  up  frequently  a  part  of  the  room  which  should  be  occupied  by  steam  ; 
and  if  the  piston  does  not  fit  to  a  nicety,  fresh  steam  escapes  between  it  and  the 
cylinder. 

The  counter-pressure  is  always  higher  than  that  of  the  atmosphere,  or  15  pounds, 
as  we  have  supposed  it  to  be,  the  friction  of  the  steam  in  the  waste-pipes  consumes 
power,  and  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  loss  of  fresh  steam,  which  fills  the  channels 
and  the  space  between  the  piston  and  the  heads  of  the  cylinder. 

If  the  escaping  steam  is  utilized,  as  it  ought  to  be,  by  passing  through  pipes,  sur- 
rounded by  air  or  water  or  other  liquids,  or  by  direct  introduction  into  the  latter,  the 
counter-pressure  will  be  thereby  considerably  increased. 

The  total  amount  of  loss  from  these  sources  is  very  different,  according  to  the  con- 
struction, disposition,  and  management  of  the  steam-power;  it  can  hardly  be  calcu- 
lated, but  can  only  be  found  by  experience ;  a  sufficient  allowance  should  be  made  for 
it,  so  that  the  engine  need  not  be  forced. 

4() 


362 


GENERAL  BEMABKS. 


The  2)ipe  which  conducts  fresh  steam  to  the  engine  should  not  have  less  inside 
diameter  than  one-quarter  of  the  diameter  of  the  piston,  and  tlie  escape  or  waste-pipe 
is  to  be  as  large  as  possible,  but  not  less  than  one  and  a  half  times  as  large  as  the 
steam-pipe  which  connects  with  the  boilers. 

The  cylinder  is  to  be  provided  with  small  pipes  fastened  to  the  lowest  points  of 
the  heads,  through  which  the  condensed  water  can  be  blown  off  outside  of  the  room. 

300.  Disposition  and  Management. — Steam-engines  of  very  regular  speed  are 
required  in  paper-mills,  and  especially  for  the  paper-machines ;  they  should  be  well 
built,  and  provided  with  sufficiently  large  fly-wheels  and  good  governors. 

They  must  be  mounted  on  solid  frames  in  such  a  manner  that  none  of  their 
parts  can  deviate  in  the  slightest  degree  from  their  relative  situations.  Too  much 
attention  cannot  be  given  to  this  point  as  well  as  to  solid,  heavy  foundations. 

The  connection  between  the  steam-engine  and  shafting  is  now  generally  made  by 
means  of  belts,  either  from  separate  pulleys  or  directly  from  the  fly-wheel. 

If  the  steam-power  is  only  "used  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  a  water-power, 
steam-engine  and  water-wheel  may  both  drive  the  same  shaft.  The  water-wheel 
gate  must  be  opened  sufficiently  to  admit  all  the  water  furnished  by  the  stream ; 
while  the  engine,  which  drives  the  same  line  shaft  with  a  belt,  is  regulated  by  the 
governor,  so  as  to  furnish  the  balance  of  the  required  power,  whatever  it  may  be. 

No  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to  give  charge  of  a  steam-engine  to  a  cheap 
but  incompetent  man.  Not  only  will  the  engine  itself  be  ruined,  but  it  will  not 
furnish  as  much  power  from  a  certain  quantity  of  steam  as  it  should,  and  consume  in 
wasted  fuel  many  times  the  wages  of  a  good  engineer. 

The  best  available  man  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose,  one  who  is  desirous 
of  instructing  himself,  and  who  takes  pride  in  the  good  performance  and  clean  condi- 
tion of  his  engine. 


SECTION  V. 
Pipes. 

301.  Their  Use  and  Disposition. — Steam  as  well  as  water  loses  power  by  friction, 
by  a  change  of  direction  in  corners  and  angles,  and  by  contraction.  All  pipes  for 
their  conveyance  should  therefore  be  as  short,  straight,  and  wide  as  possible ;  by 
every  superfluous  piece  of  pipe  or  elbow  a  quantity  of  pressure,  requiring  a  certain 
number  of  pounds  of  coal  for  its  production,  is  lost.  A  saving  of  first  cost  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  narrow  pipes  in  the  place  of  large  ones,  but  it  is  done 
at  the  expense  of  a  permanent  loss  of  pressure  or  fuel. 

Cast-iron  pipes  are  cheaper  and  more  durable  for  large  sizes,  but  wrought-iron 
ones  are  preferable  for  narrower  ones,  because  they  can  be  more  easily  put  together ; 


PIPES. 


363 


pipes  of  inside  diameters  of  2  inches  or  less  may  be  of  wrought-iron,  but  all  those 
of  larger  sizes  should  be  of  cast-iron. 

Every  piece  of  pipe  should  have  been  tested  with  high  pressure  before  it  is  used. 

A  set  of  taps  and  dies  to  cut  threads  on  pipes  of  2  inches  diameter  or  less,  and 
some  of  the  most  used  valves,  fixtures,  and  pipes,  should  be  kept  on  hand  at  the 
mill,  so  that  any  leaks  or  breaks  can  be  quickly  repaired. 

Steam  loses  heat  during  its  passage  through  pipes,  unless  they  are  well  sur- 
rounded by  non-conducting  materials.  It  is  advisable  to  wrap  good,  tough  paper — 
one  of  the  best  non-conductors — around  the  pipes,  and  tie  or  sew  old  felting,  or 
some  other  cloth,  around  them.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  this  seemingly 
unimportant  point ;  its  neglect  has  cost  many  tons  of  coal  which  might  otherwise  have 
been  saved. 

Steam  pipes  should,  wherever  it  is  feasible,  be  disposed,  so  that  the  water  result- 
ing from  condensation  cannot  gather  anywhere,  and  will  flow  back  into  the  steam- 
boiler. 

If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  water  should  be  drawn  off  into  self-acting  steam-traps 
at  the  lowest  points.  Some  of  these  traps  consist  of  iron  boxes,  wherein  the  water  is 
collected,  until  it  rises  high  enough  to  open  an  outlet-valve  by  means  of  a  swimmer 
or  float ;  but  they  are  considered  not  so  reliable  as  those  which  are  based  on  the  con- 
traction and  expansion  of  metals. 

In  those  of  the  latter  construction  the  steam-pipes  are  likewise  connected  with  a 
small  iron  box  or  reservoir,  from  which  a  long  iron  or  brass  pipe  extends  to  a  distance 
of  about  10  to  15  feet,  fastened  at  the  far  end,  and  attached  with  its  loose  end  in  the 
box  to  an  outlet-valve.  While  the  pipe  is  filled  with  steam  and  expanded  to  its 
greatest  length,  the  valve  remains  closed ;  but  the  pipe  contracts  as  soon  as  its 
temperature  is  reduced  by  the  substitution  of  condensed  steam  for  live  steam,  it  then 
opens  the  valve,  and  discharges  the  water.  The  operation  of  this  steam-trap  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  steam  of  any  pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  has  always  a  higher 
temperature  than  water,  which  cannot  rise  above  the  boiling-point,  or  212  degrees 
Fahr. 

The  water  which  escapes  from  these  steam-traps,  should  be  collected  in  a  reservoir 
and  fed  to  the  boilers. 

Many  different  kinds  of  paint  are  used  to  preserve  iron,  and  especially  pipes, 
against  rusting,  but  according  to  the  author's  experience,  none  answers  so  well  as  red 
lead.  All  iron  pipes  should  be  covered  outside  and  inside,  as  far  as  possible,  with 
red  lead  paint. 

It  is  a  condition  upon  which  depends  the  economical  arMngetnent  of  a  mill  that 
the  steam-generators  should  be  near  the  parts  which  they  have  to  supply,  such  as 
steam-engines,  paper-machine,  rag-boilers,  so  that  only  few  steam-pipes  shall  be 
required. 


364 


GENERAL  BEMAEKS. 


SECTION  VI. 
Pulleys,  Belts,  and  Geaeings  Geneeally. 

302.  Belts. — The  transmission  of  power  or  motion  to  the  different  parts  of  a  mill 
is  at  present  accomplished  principally  by  shafts,  pulleys,  and  belts,  cog-wheels  being 
used  only  where  they  cannot  well  be  avoided,  -  Pulleys  and  belts  are  preferred  be- 
cause their  shafts  can  be  placed  at  nearly  any  distance  from  each  other,  because  they 
are  subjected  to  no  breaks  which  cannot  be  quickly  mended,  and  because  they  work 
without  noise. 

The  friction  on  the  pulleys,  which  alone  enables  a  belt  to  transmit  power  from 
one  pulley  to  the  other,  is  directly  proportionate  to  the  surface  covered  by  the  belt. 
Everything  else  being  equal,  belts  cover  a  larger  part  of  both  pulleys  the  further 
they  are  apart. 

The  friction  is  also  dependent  on  the  tension  of  the  belt  or  the  tightness  with 
which  it  fits  on  the  pulleys.  A  long  belt  is  pressed  to  the  surface  of  the  pulleys  by 
its  weight,  but  a  short  one  nuist  be  stretched  more,  in  order  to  lay  equally  as  tight, 
and  it  will  consequently  wear  out  sooner ;  long  belts  are  therefore  more  durable  and 
work  better  than  short  ones. 

If  the  power,  which  is  to  be  transmitted  during  a  given  time,  is  distributed  upon 
a  large  number  of  revolutions,  the  belt  will  not  be  strained  much  at  any  one  time ; 
but  its  tension  becomes  very  great  if  the  motion  is  slow.  Fast-running  pulleys 
require,  therefore,  smaller  belts  than  slow  ones,  and  are  preferable. 

The  ends  of  a  belt  may  be  fastened  together  with  hooks  or  lace-leather,  and  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  cut  them  perfectly  square,  so  that  the  length  remains  the  same 
all  across. 

The  laces  should  not  be  crossed  on  the  inside,  and  must  be  evenly  divided. 

The  more  nearly  an  equal  thickness  and  perfect  straightness  are  secured  in  the 
belt  throughout  its  whole  length,  the  better  will  it  perform  its  work. 

Rubber  belts,  composed  of  alternating  layers  of  rubber  and  cotton-cloth,  have 
taken  nearly  altogether  the  place  of  leather  ones,  because  they  are  not  so  sensitive  to 
moisture  and  give  more  friction  ;  but  in  perfectly  dry  places  their  relative  prices 
should  alone  decide  which  kind  is  to  be  used. 

303.  Pulleys. — If  oil,  or  even  water,  is  allowed  to  get  on  the  belt  or  pulley,  it  may 
reduce  the  friction  so  that  the  belt  will  slip  and  refuse  to  work.  While  this  is  the 
case,  the  belt  is  rubbing  constantly  against  the  pulley,  and  is  .thereby  worn  out  more 
in  hours  than  in  weeks  of  regular  work.  If  the  pulleys  are  in  an  atmosphere  of  steam, 
the  latter  will  soon  condense  on  the  cold  surfaces,  and  in  winter  this  is  sometimes  a 


PULLEYS,  BELTS,  AND  GEAEINGS  GENEBALLY. 


365 


source  of  so  much  trouble,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  keep  the  steam  susj)ended  as 
vapor  by  heating  the  room. 

Pulleys  are  frequently  covered  with  leather  or  rubber  to  increase  the  friction, 
but,  if  they  are  only  true  and  well  balanced,  this  is  hardly  necessary,  although  it  may 
«  be  useful.  It  is  astonishing  to  see  how  many  pulleys  do  not  run  true,  because  they 
are  either  badly  cast  and  balanced,  or  not  bored  out  correctly ;  such  pulleys  are  very 
injurious  to  the  belts.  No  first-class  machine-shop  will  jjermit  a  pulley  to  be 
shipped  with  a  heavy  side  and  without  having  been  thoroughly  examined. 

If  the  pulley  has  in  some  place  a  larger  diameter  than  in  others,  the  tension,  and 
with  it  the  friction  of  the  belt,  must  be  larger  there  than  anywhere  else ;  the  belt  will 
therefore  constantly  shift  over  to  it.  This  explains  why — in  order  to  keep  the  belt 
in  the  middle — it  is  only  necessary  to  turn  the  pulley  a  little  full  in  the  middle,  so 
that  the  surface  presents  a  curved  instead  of  a  straight  line. 

The  pulleys  must  be  fitted  to  the  shaft  with  great  care ;  if  they  are  bored  out  too 
large,  they  can  hardly  be  put  on  so  as  to  run  true.  The  entire  lengths  of  all  shafts, 
carrying  pulleys  or  wheels,  should  be  turned. 

It  is  more  convenient  to  the  makers  to  fasten  the  pulleys  on  the  shafts  with  set- 
screws,  but  they  become  a  source  of  trouble  at  the  mill.  The  point  of  the  set-screw 
alone  connects  the  pulley  with  the  shaft  and  transfers  the  power  from  one  to  the 
other ;  it  breaks  off  frequently  or  carves  out  a  channel  in  the  shaft,  thus  injuring  it 
irredeemably.  Pulleys  which  have  any  considerable  amount  of  work  to  do,  should 
always  be  fastened  with  keys. 

304.  Cog-Wheels  and  Shafts. — It  is  theoretically  possible  to  construct  a  pair  of 
gear-wheels  so  that  the  cogs  of  the  driving  one  will  only  push,  or  roll  upon,  those  of 
the  driven  one  without  perceptible  friction.  It  is  stated,  that  wrought-iron  wheels 
have  been  cut  out  with  such  perfection,  that  no  sound  betrayed  their  motion. 

Manufacturers  generally  can,  however,  not  afford  to  use  wheels  of  that  kind  ; 
they  must  content  themselves  with  cast-iron  ones  ;  but  the  greater  or  lesser  noise  which 
they  produce  in  running,  indicates  the  degree  of  skill  with  which  they  have  been 
constructed. 

If  very  large  cog-wheels  are  required,  it  is  better  to  give  wooden  cogs  to  one  of 
them  (to  the  driving  one),  as  they  will  cause  less  loss  of  power  from  friction  and  less 
noise  than  iron  running  on  iron. 

Such  cogs  should  be  made  of  tough,  close-grained  wood,  and  cut  out  a  long  time 
before  they  may  be  needed,  so  that  they  will  be  well  seasoned  when  they  are  to  be 
,  fitted  on  the  wheel. 

Cast-iron  shafts  may,  and  ought  to  be,  at  present  considered  a  thing  of  the  past, 
as  there  is  in  most  cases  not  even  economy  in  their  use ;  they  must  be  made  so  much 
heavier  than  hammered  ones,  that  the  difference  in  the  price  per  pound  is  nearly 
made  up  by  the  increased  weight,  while  at  the  same  time  cast  iron,  being  of  a  more 
brittle  nature,  breaks  more  easily,  and  is  generally  less  reliable. 

305.  Bearings. — The  rays  of  the  sun  are  the  source  of  all  heat,  and  consequently 


366  GENERAL  REMARKS. 

of  all  power ;  they  raise  by  evaporation  the  water,  which  has  passed  through  our 
streams,  gather  it  into  clouds  and  deposit  it  on  the  mountains  and  highlands,  whence 
it  descends  again,  forming  waterfalls  and  driving  our  wheels ;  and  the  heat  furnished 
by  these  rays  is  found  stored  up  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  as  decayed  vegetable 
matter  or  coal. 

The  power  which  is  derived  from  these  reservoirs  of  heat  cannot  be  aniiihilated, 
and  although  we  call  it  wasted  whenever  it  is  misapplied,  its  presence  must  mani- 
fest itself  by  some  action. 

A  portion  of  the  available  power  of  a  mill  is  always  absorbed  by  the  friction  of 
the  shafts  in  their  bearings,  and  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that  it  reproduces  heat ; 
but  ordinarily  it  is  consumed  by  the  combustion  of  lubricating-oil  or  by  wearing  off — 
j^erhaps  so  gradually  as  to  be  hardly  perceptible — the  metal  of  shafts  and  bearings, 
but  especially  of  the  latter,  which  is  usually  the  softer  one  of  the  two.  The  oils  and 
fatty  matters  which  we  interpose  between  the  metal  surfaces  not  only  reduce  the  fric- 
tion, but  also  serve  as  scapegoat  for  the  shafts  and  bearings,  by  absorbing  the  j)ower  or 
heat  through  slow  combustion. 

If  the  weight  of  a  shaft  is  divided  on  a  large  suj)porting  surface,  it  will  exercise 
but  little  friction  upon  any  one  part  of  it ;  long  boxes  are  therefore  preferable  to 
short  ones ;  and  they  offer  an  additional  advantage,  in  being  large  enough  to  contain 
capacious  reservoirs  for  oil,  in  which  the  shaft  runs  and  thus  greases  itself. 

If  a  shaft  is  very  long  and  requires  more  than  two  or  three  bearings,  it  is 
difficult  to  set  and  preserve  them  in  such  accurate  positions  that  they  will  always 
remain  in  line,  and  not  give  cause  for  jams  and  increased  friction ;  boxes  which  pivot 
in  the  middle  and  adjust  themselves  to  the  shaft  should  therefore  be  used  in  such 
cases. 

Bearings  or  shells  have  been  made  from  numerous  compositions  of  metals,  of 
which  brass  and  bronze  are  best  known ;  but  alloys  which  can  easily  be  recast  and 
furnish  a  hard  shell,  are  generally  preferred  in  paper-mills.  They  are  usually  named 
after  their  makers,  and  may  be  purchased  at  the  hardware  stores.  The  composition 
which  is  used  for  stereotype  plates,  answers  also  very  well. 

Bearings  of  such  materials  can  be  renewed  at  the  mill ;  but  the  boxes  should  be 
of  cast  iron,  with  hollow  spaces  for  their  reception.  Whenever  a  new  shell  is  re- 
quired, the  box  must  be  well  cleaned  out,  an  iron  or  wooden  shaft,  of  exactly  the 
same  diameter  as  the  one  which  it  supports,  fitted  in,  and  the  molten  metal — any 
remaining  openings  having  been  closed  with  putty — poured  through  a  hole  left  for 
this  purpose. 

Hard-wood  bearings  are  frequently  used,  and  even  glass  bearings  have  lately 
been  introduced  and  promise  success. 

Whatever  kind  of  bearings  may  be  used,  they  must  all  be  kept  well  oiled.  Self- 
oilers  have  been  invented  for  this  purpose,  many  of  which  may  be  of  great  value  in 
saving  oil  and  labor ;  but  every  manufacturer  should  employ  a  careful  and  reliable 
man,  whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  every  part  of  the  shafting  and  machinery  is  well 
greased. 


MEANS  OF  TBAN8P0RTATI0N  IN  THE  MILL.  367 

If  a  box  becomes  heated,  the  expedient  of  cooling  it  down  by  mixing  tlour  of 
sulphur  with  the  tallow  or  greasing  oil  is  usually  resorted  to ;  but  it  will  only  be  effi- 
cient if  the  cause,  which  will  frequently  be  found  to  be  a  jam  or  a  too  closely-fitting 
box,  has  previously  been  removed. 

306.  Calculation  of  Speeds  and  Sizes  of  Pulleys  and  Cog-Wheels. — Every  part  of 
the  circumference  of  two  pulleys  of  different  sizes,  which  is  covered  by  one  and  the 
same  belt,  has  the  same  speed ;  a  pulley  of  twice  as  large  a  circumference  or  diameter 
than  its  mate  can  therefore  make  only  one  revolution  while  the  smaller  one  turns 
twice,  or  the  speed  of  the  shaft  of  a  pulley  is  inversely  proportionate  to  its  diameter  ; 
in  other  words,  as  the  number  of  revolutions  is  to  be  greater  or  smaller,  the  diameter 
of  the  pulley  must  be  smaller  or  larger  in  proportion. 

The  same  rule  holds  good  for  cog-wheels  which  work  together,  and  it  is  the  basis 
for  the  calculation  of  their  sizes. 

If  we  have,  for  example,  a  pulley  of  48  inches  diameter  upon  a  shaft,  which 
makes  fifty  revolutions  per  minute,  and  wish  to  drive  from  it  another  shaft  with  a 
speed  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  turns  j^er  minute,  or  three  times  as  much  ;  we  require 
for  this  driven  shaft  a  pulley,  the  diameter  of  which  is  one-third  of  that  of  the  driving 
one,  or  Y  =  16  inches. 

SECTION  VII. 
Means  of  Teanspoetation  in  the  Mill. 

307.  Trucks. — A  great  deal  of  raw  material,  half-stuff,  white  pulp  and  paper  are 
constantly  moved  on  the  same  floor,  or  from  one  story  to  another  in  paper-mills. 
All  such  transportation  can  be  done  in  boxes  running  on  rolls  or  trucks. 

The  pulp-boxes  are  usually  2  to  3  feet  wide,  3  to  4  feet  long,  and  2  to  3  feet 
deep.  The  rolls  are  of  cast  iron,  mounted  on  bolts  or  shafts  carried  by  the  two 
brackets  of  castings,  which  are  bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

The  larger  the  rolls  are  the  easier  will  they  run,  but  those  of  from  8  to  12  inches 
diameter  and  2  inches  face  answer  for  most  purposes.  Four  of  them  are  required  for 
a  box,  one  in  the  middle  of  each  side,  and  all  parallel  with  the  long  sides.  If  the  four 
rolls  touched  the  ground  at  once  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  turn  the  box,  or  even  to 
move  it  in  a  straight  line,  unless  the  floor  were  perfectly  smooth. 

The  cast  bearings  are  therefore  fastened  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  rolls  on 
the  long  sides  project  from  the  bottom  of  the  box  from  ?  to  1  inch  more  than  the  two 
on  the  short  sides.  When  the  box  stands  perfectly  horizontal  it  rests  only  on  the 
two  wheels  in  the  middle  of  the  long  sides,  while  the  front  and  back  ones  remain  at 
^  to  1  inch  distance  above  the  floor.  This  is  accomplished  by  letting  the  latter  into 
the  bottom,  or  by  putting  a  board  of  \  to  1  inch  thickness  between  the  bearings  of 
the  two  side-wheels  and  the  bottom. 


MEANS  OF  TRANSPOBTATION  IN  THE  MILL.  369 

It  is  thus  impossible  that  the  box  should  run  on  more  than  three  wheels  at  one 
time,  namely,  the  two  side-wheels  and  either  the  front  or  rear  one,  according  to  the 
will  of  the  man  who  pushes  the  box.  Whenever  a  sharp  turn  is  to  be  made,  or  an 
unevenness  on  the  floor  to  be  passed,  the  driver  bears  on  or  lifts  the  back  end,  so 
that  the  side-wheels  alone  remain  on  the  floor,  and  there  can  be  no  difiiculty  in  turn- 
"ing  or  moving  the  box  in  any  desired  direction. 

308.  Elevators. — A  bolster,  moved  by  pulleys  and  belts,  and  stopped  and  started 
at  will,  with  a  platform  of  such  size  that  it  can  hold  the  largest  boxes,  ought  to  con- 
nect the  different  stories.  Material  or  pulp  can  then  be  transported  by  means  of  the 
bolster  and  trucks  from  any  one  to  any  other  point  of  the  mill. 

The  size  of  the  boxes  must  be  suited  to  the  requirements  of  each  mill,  and  every 
bolster  should  be  furnished  with  an  arrangement  which  prevents  it  from  falling  to 
the  ground  if  the  rope  or  some  other  part  should  break. 

The  holster  represented  in  Fig.  129,  as  manufactured  by  the  Holyoke  Machine 
Company,  Holyoke,  Mass.,  may  serve  as  an  example. 

The  car  a  is  susj^ended  between  two  guide-posts  d  d,  each  having  a  toothed  rack 
on  the  inner  face,  and  is  operated  by  a  wire-rope  b,  which  jiasses  over  a  pulley  at  the 
top  of  the  building,  and  thence  to  the  winding  drum  c.  The  car  is  provided  with 
two  stop-dogs  a  a,  connected  with  the  draw-bar  and  spring  c  by  the  levers  b  b,  which 
are  instantly  forced  outward  by  the  action  of  the  spring,  and  engage  with  the  toothed 
rack  on  the  posts,  in  case  the  rope  is  broken,  thereby  preventing  the  fall  of  the  car. 
Motion  is  communicated  to  the  drum  from  the  belts  by  a  worm  and  gear,  which  are 
inclosed  in  an  iron  case,  where  they  may  be  run  in  oil,  and  the  wear  usually  attend- 
ing such  gearing,  prevented. 

The  movement  of  the  sliding  shipper-bar  is  effected  by  its  connection  through 
the  bell-crank  j  with  the  vertical  rod  i,  which  is  provided  with  a  handle  at  each 
landing,  and,  all  being  balanced,  is  moved  with  equal  facility  in  either  direction. 

The  car  is  stopped  automatically  on  reaching  the  last  landing,  either  ascending 
or  descending,  by  coming  in  contact  with  a  short  arm  fixed  on  the  rod  i. 

The  drum  c  and  j)latform  a  can  be  moved  in  either  direction,  or  stopped  by 
means  of  an  open  and  a  cross-belt  on  the  three  pulleys  f,  the  middle  one  of  which 
is  as  wide  as  a  belt,  and  keyed  on  the  shaft,  while  the  loose  pulleys  on  each  side  are 
twice  as  wide  as  the  belts.  The  two  belts,  being  as  far  apart  as  the  width  of  one 
belt,  will  always  occupy  one  of  the  three  desired  positions  on  the  pulleys  ;  they  will 
turn  the  shaft  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  or  not  at  all. 

It  is  frequently  difiicult  to  stop  the  bolster  promptly,  because  the  belts  will  not 
leave  the  tight  pulley  quickly  enough,  and  a  brake  g  is  therefore  provided. 

The  weight  seen  in  Fig.  129  is  attached  to  the  end  of  a  lever,  which  fits  the 
upper  part  of  the  face  of  a  pulley  mounted  on  the  driving-shaft.  This  lever  carries 
a  small  pulley,  which  rests  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  shifting-bar,  and  falls  into  a 
notch  just  before  the  belts  leave  the  tight  pulley  entirely.  The  lever  then  bears  on 
the  friction-pulley,  and  acts  as  a  brake,  thus  stopping  the  machine  promptly,  and 
holding  it  against  any  slight  chafing  of  the  belts. 

47 


370 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


SECTION  VIII. 
Heating  and  Ventilating  the  Mill. 

309.  Stoves  and  Steam-Pipes. — It  is  natural  that  we  should  frequently  find  mills 
heated  in  the  same  manner  as  dwellings,  although  stoves  and  their  pipes  are  sources 
of  danger  and  of  idleness.  Precisely  as  people  do  at  home,  so  will  the  mill  hands  con- 
gregate around  the  stoves,  whenever  they  have  an  opportunity  to  do  so  unobserved, 
and  their  work  will  be  neglected  in  proportion.  Small  particles  of  the  fuel,  especially 
of  coal  and  ashes,  cannot  fail  to  get  into  the  pulp  and  paper,  if  they  are  admitted 
inside  of  the  mill. 

By  heating  with  steam  we  create  no  fire-place,  no  useful  room  need  be  occupied, 
the  heat  can  be  started,  stopped,  and  moderated  by  simply  turning  a  valve,  and  fuel 
is  saved.  The  pipes  must  be  located  on  or  beneath  the  floor,  because  heated  air, 
being  expanded  and  lighter  than  cold  air,  ascends. 

Coils  or  bunches  of  wrought-iron  pipes  are  frequently  used,  but  they  are  expen- 
sive, while  cast-iron  ones,  of  about  4  to  6  inches  diameter,  answer  the  purpose  in 
many  cases  as  well.  If  they  are  susj)ended  below  the  ceiling,  openings  must  be  left 
in  the  floor  above,  through  which  the  warm  air  can  enter. 

Waste  of  steam  is  the  principal  danger  which  has  to  be  guarded  against.  If  live 
steam  is  used  it  should  be  conducted  from  the  generator  to  the  heating-pipes  in  small 
wrought-iron  pipes  regulated  by  valves.  The  heating-pipes  should  all  be  laid  descending 
and  connected  in  such  a  manner  that  the  condensed  steam  cannot  gather  in  bags  or 
corners,  but  must  return  into  the  boilers ;  and  if  this  cannot  be  done,  the  water  should 
be  withdrawn  by  means  of  steam-traps. 

The  outlet- valve  can  be  regulated  so  that  the  steam  will  all  be  condensed,  and 
the  hot  water  thus  obtained,  if  it  cannot  return  directly  to  the  boilers,  should  be  forced 
•into  them,  or  used  for  some  other  operation,  where  it  will  save  steam. 

The  steam,  or  rather  the  heat  contained  in  it,  will  be  more  thoroughly  exhausted 
in  proportion  as  the  surface  of  the  pipes,  through  which  it  travels,  is  larger. 

If  the  escaped  steam  from  an  engine  is  used  for  heating  purposes,  the  pipes  must 
be  made  capacious  all  through,  to  avoid  contraction  of  steam  and  a  consequent 
increase  of  the  counter-jDressure. 

Whichever  system  may  be  adopted,  none  will  heat  the  mill  comfortably  unless 
good  care  is  taken  that  all  the  leaks  in  the  building,  and  all  unnecessary  communi- 
cation with  the  cold  air  outside,  are  prevented. 

310.  Ventilation. — We  have  not  found  any  paper-mill  provided  with  a  thorough 
system  of  ventilation,  although  few  buildings  are  more  in  need  of  it.  The  atmos- 
phere of  the  different  work-rooms  is  loaded  with  rag-dust,  saturated  with  steam. 


LIGHTING. 


371 


chlorine  gas,  and  with  the  indescribable  but  well-known  odor,  disseminated  by  the 
steam  which  has  been  used  for  boiling  rags,  waste-paper,  or  straw,  &c.,  and  cannot 
fail  to  be  injurious  to  the  human  system.  Although  paper-makers  are  wont  to  call 
it  healthy,  it  will  be  admitted  on  reflection,  that  none  but  pure  air  can  be  so,  not  even 
chlorine,  which  serves  as  a  purifier  in  very  small  quantities  only. 

Wet  air,  steam,  dust,  and  chlorine  are  heavier  than  the  atmosphere,  and  will 
collect  on  the  floors  of  the  work-rooms ;  it  is  therefore  on  the  floor,  and  not  at  the 
ceiling,  where  ventilating  flues  should  start. 

Artificial  ventilation  is  not  required  in  summer-time,  when  the  windows  and 
doors  may  be  kept  open,  and  in  winter  it  will  be  much  assisted  by  a  well-arranged 
system  of  heating.  The  brick  or  stone  walls  should  be  built  with  air-flues,  which 
start  from  the  floor  of  every  room,  where  they  may  be  regulated  by  means  of  registers, 
and  reach  the  open  air  above  the  roof  like  ordinary  chimneys.  The  lighter  hot  air 
will  ascend  to  the  ceilings  and  displace  the  impure  moist  air,  driving  it  down  towards 
the  flues,  through  which  it  escapes,  while  a  supply  of  fresh  air  should  be  admitted 
immediately  below  the  heating-apparatus. 


SECTION  IX. 
Lighting. 

311.  Oil. — The  principal  ojierations  of  a  paper-mill  require  supervision  only,  and 
very  little  labor,  and  they  are  usually  carried  on  during  the  night  as  well  as  the  day, 
as  the  owners  are  generally  desirous  of  utilizing  the  capital  and  water-power  to  the 
fullest  extent.    It  is  therefore  of  importance  that  the  mills  should  be  well  lighted. 

Since  the  discovery  of  j)etroleum  in  Pennsylvania,  refined  coal-oil  has,  on  account 
of  its  low  price  and  brilliant  light,  taken  the  place  of  nearly  all  other  kinds  of  illumi- 
nating fluids,  which  were  formerly  burnt  in  lamps.  To  understand  its  nature,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  how  it  is  produced. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  the  product  of  a  natural  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  on  a 
large  scale,  and  is  found  under  ground,  from  70  to  600  feet  below  the  surface,  in 
enormous  quantities.  Sometimes  it  is  mixed  with,  or  driven  up  by  compressed  gas, 
like  water  in  an  artesian  well,  but  in  most  cases  it  has  to  be  pumped  up.  Mr.  David 
Murray,  in  a  communication  to  the  Albany  Institute,  1862,  gives  the  following 
description  of  the  process  of  distillation  : 

"  Much  water  is  often  pumped  up  with  the  petroleum,  but  separates  from  it  on  standing,  the  oil 
rising  to  the  surface.  The  crude  oil  is  put  into  large  retorts  of  cast-  or  wrought-iron,  and  exposed  to  a 
heat  of  from  600  to  800  degrees,  by  which  all  the  volatile  ingredients  are  distilled,  leaving  10  to  12  per 


372 


GENERAL  BE  MARKS. 


cent,  of  solid  residue,  constituting  a  sort  of  coke.  The  liquid  thus  obtained  is  comparatively  colorless, 
though  still  retaining  the  odor  of  the  crude  oil.  To  separate  various  organic  alkaloids  and  acids  with 
which  it  is  mixed,  the  distilled  petroleum  is  agitated  first  with  sulphuric  acid  and  afterwards  with  a 
strong  solution  of  soda  or  potassa ;  the  sulphuric  acid  with  its  dissolved  impurities  being  drawn  off  and 
the  oil  well  washed  with  water  before  the  addition  of  the  alkali,  it  is  afterwards  again  washed  when  the 
alkali  has  performed  its  function.  The  purified  petroleum  is  now  submitted  to  another  distillation, 
but  at  first,  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  120  degrees,  in  order  that  onlj  the  more  volatile  carbo- 
hydrogens  may  be  driven  over,  which  are  unsuitable  for  lamp-oil.  These  being  condensed  constitute 
what  is  now  commonly  called  naphtha,  which  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  varnishes  and  caoutchouc,  and  for 
mixture  with  paints,  a  purpose  which  it  answers  as  well  as  oil  of  turpentine,  except  for  its  offensive 
smell.  It  is  unsuitable  for  lamps  from  its  extreme  volatility,  its  liability  to  smoke  when  burned,  and 
the  danger  of  explosion  from  the  admixture  of  its  vapor  with  atmospheric  air.  After  the  naphtha, 
which  is  equivalent  to  the  benzine  of  coal-tar,  has  all  come  over,  the  heat  is  increased  and  the  distil- 
lation continued,  until  the  distilled  liquid  attains  the  specific  gravity  of  0.820.  This  is  the  part  sold 
for  lighting,  and  by  far  the  most  important  product  of  petroleum.  The  quantity  of  it  obtained  varies 
greatly,  sometimes  not  exceeding  30  per  cent.,  sometimes  amounting  to  80  or  90.  It  is  clear,  and  of  a 
fine  deep  amber  color,  and  answers  admirably  for  lighting,  yielding  a  brighter  and  purer  flame  than 
perhaps  any  other  kind  of  lamp-oil.  If  the  distillation  be  now  continued,  a  darker  and  heavier  product 
comes  over,  which,  upon  cooling,  deposits  paraffine.  The  part  remaining  liquid,  which  is  too  impure 
for  burning,  is  employed  for  lubricating  machinery." 

The  first  products  of  distillation,  being  obtained  at  the  lowest  temperature,  are 
the  most  volatile,  and,  as  they  cannot  legitimately  be  sold  for  lighting,  can  be  bought 
at  very  low  prices.  It  is  therefore  the  oil  dealer's  interest  to  mix  as  much  of  this 
volatile  substance  into  the  illuminating  oil  sold  by  him  as  the  public  will  take. 

A  test  has  been  established  by  which  it  can  easily  be  determined,  if  an  oil  be 
suitable  for  illuminating  purposes.  Some  of  the  oil  is  heated  by  means  of  an  alcohol- 
lamp  in  the  open  tin  cup  of  an  oil-tester,  and  a  lighted  match  is  held  over  it  at  such 
height  that  the  flame  cannot  reach  the  oil  directly,  but  will  only  ignite  it  through 
the  medium  of  its  vapor  as  soon  as  it  appears.  The  temperature  shown  at  this 
moment  by  the  thermometer  fastened  in  the  cup  gives  the  ^re  test  or  the  point  at 
which  the  oil  begins  to  evaporate. 

The  law  has  in  some  States  fixed  the  fire  test,  below  which  illuminating  oil  is  not 
permitted  to  be  sold  to  the  public,  at  110  degrees  Fahrenheit,  but  most  oils  will 
nevertheless  be  found  below  that  standard. 

If,  during  a  hot  night  or  in  a  highly  heated  room,  such  oil  is  either  spilt  or 
drawn  from  a  barrel,  vapor  will  immediately  be  formed,  which,  in  contact  with  the 
light  of  a  lantern  or  candle,  will  catch  fire,  and — like  a  fuse — communicate  it  to  the 
oil,  causing,  perhaps,  an  explosion  or  a  conflagration. 

Different  ingenious  names  are  only  the  covers  under  which  more  or  less  volatile 
oils  or  benzine  are  sold,  but  they  can  easily  be  detected  as  such  by  the  above  test. 
Coal-oil  of  less  than  110,  or  rather  120  degrees  fire  test,  should  not  be  used  in  jDaper- 
mills,  or  in  the  presence  of  any  combustible  matters. 

Lamps  of  all  kinds  are  a  source  of  trouble ;  the  smallest  drop  of  water  is  suf- 
ficient to  crack  a  heated  glass  globe;  and  breaks  from  this  source  can,  in  paper-mills, 


LIGHTING. 


373 


where  water  and  steam  are  always  abundant,  hardly  be  avoided.  The  glass  also  be- 
comes moist  from  condensed  steam,  or  black  from  the  smoke  of  an  imperfectly  burn- 
ing lamp,  and  thus  obstructs  the  passage  of  light. 

Besides  the  expense  caused  by  breaks,  repairs,  wicks,  and  oil,  a  great  deal  of 
labor  and  attention  are  required  to  keep  the  lamps  in  order.  Experience  is  necessary 
for  the  management  of  lamps,  as  well  as  of  any  other  machine,  however  insignificant 
it  may  seem ;  and  it  is  therefore  best  to  let  one  careful  person  have  charge  of  all  of 
them. 

312.  Gas. — Gas  burns  without  chimneys,  wicks,  or  any  preparation ;  it  gives  a 
uniform  bright  light,  and  is  in  every  respect  preferable  to  oil. 

Many  paper-mills,  which  are  beyond  the  reach  of  gasworks,  make  their  own 
gas,  either  from  coal  or  from  the  residue  of  the  distillation  of  petroleum  or  from  coal- 
oil.  A  retort,  a  cleaner  in  which  the  gas  is  purified  by  lime,  and  a  gasometer  make 
up  the  equipment  of  such  a  gas  factory,  and  the  labor  to  be  performed  is  very 
trifling. 

Within  late  years  gas-machines  have  come  into  use  for  the  lighting  of  factories 
and  residences,  which  are  based  on  the  easy  evaporation  of  the  volatile  oils,  the  first 
products  of  the  distillation  of  petroleum,  which  are  so  obnoxious  in  lamp-oil. 

All  of  these  machines  consist  of  three  parts,  one  of  which  contains  a  drum — im- 
mersed in  water  and  constructed  on  the  same  principles  as  those  in  gas-meters — 
which  is  set  in  motion  by  a  combination  of  a  weight  and  gearing,  similar  to  those  used 
in  old  clocks.  The  second  part  is  an  evaporator,  wherein  the  gasoline  is  presented 
in  as  fine  a  division  or  with  as  large  a  surface  as  possible,  to  the  current  of  air,  which 
comes  from  the  first  part ;  while  the  third  part  is  only  a  miniature  gasometer. 

The  mixture  of  air  and  hydrocarbons  is  conducted  from  this  gasometer  directly 
into  the  pipes  and  to  the  burners,  and  gives  a  splendid  light.  The  pipes  should  be 
well  protected  against  cold  to  prevent  condensation. 

These  machines,  and  the  gasoline  with  which  they  are  fed,  must  be  kept  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  mill,  or  at  least  in  a  stone  cellar  or  vault,  to  which  one 
reliable  man  only  has  access. 

A  strong  reservoir  of  boiler  iron  may  be  buried  on  the  hillside,  or  placed  at 
some  height  above  the  machine,  Avith  which  it  should  be  connected  by  a  pipe. 
Several  barrels  of  gasoline  may  be  emptied  into  this  receiver  and,  the  opening  having 
been  well  closed  again,  the  naphtha  can  remain  there  in  perfect  safely,  feeding  the 
machine  through  the  connecting-pipe  without  ever  being  handled  or  even  seen.  If 
the  receiver  were  hermetically  closed,  the  gasoline  could  not  be  drawn  ofi* ;  a  small 
pipe  issues  therefore  from  its  top  and  extends  to  some  place  at  a  distance,  where  the 
air  may  enter  without  leaving  room  for  any  possibility  of  danger. 

The  two  large  mills  of  Messrs.  Jessup  &  Moore,  near  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
are  lighted  by  means  of  gas-machines,  located  in  small  stone  buildings,  at  a  short 
distance. 

We  may  mention  here  that  some  mills  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  oil  regions 


374  .  GENERAL  BEMABKS. 

are  so  fortunate  as  to  obtain  from  underground,  through  wells,  a  supply  of  gas,  which 
is  not  only  sufficient  to  furnish  all  their  light,  but  also  to  heat  the  boilers  and  raise 
steam.  Other  manufacturers  in  the  same  regions  have,  since  the  accidental  discovery 
of  these  wells,  begun  to  bore  for  gas. 


SECTION  X. 
Machinery. 

313.  Quantity  and  Quality. — A  great  deal  of  machinery  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  paper  has  been  described  in  the  preceding  pages ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
every  mill  requires  only  that  portion  of  it  which  is  suitable  for  its  particular  pur- 
poses. We  may  say  that,  as  a  rule,  the  quantity  of  machinery  increases  with  the 
quality  of  the  paper ;  a  mill  which  produces  1  ton  or  2000  pounds  of  wrapping-paper 
per  day  will,  for  instance,  be  found  to  be  a  much  simpler  and  less  extensive  establish- 
ment than  a  mill  which  turns  out  such  a  quantity  of  fine  paper. 

As  in  every  other  branch  of  manufacturing,  so  in  paper-mills  has  manual  labor 
been  superseded  by  water-  and  steam-power,  and  all  efforts  in  that  direction  deserve  to 
be  encouraged ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  every  piece  of  ma- 
chinery requires  capital  for  its  purchase,  power,  oil,  and  repairs  while  it  is  at  work, 
and  renewal  when  it  is  worn  out. 

That  mill  will  therefore  be  most  successful — all  other  conditions,  especially  the 
number  of  hands  employed,  being  equal — which  produces  the  same  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  paper  with  the  least  machinery. 

Compact  and  judicious  arrangement,  and  especially  the  good  quality  of  the  ma- 
chinery, are  essential.  If  poorly  built,  it  will  not  only  furnish  bad  work,  but  cause 
endless  repairs  and  consequent  stoppages.  Money  can  hardly  be  squandered  more 
extravagantly  than  in  buying  inferior  machinery,  when  a  comparatively  trifling 
advance  would  procure  a  good  article. 

Manufacturers  should  purchase  only  from  machinists  who  understand  their 
business,  and  have  both  the  will  and  the  means  to  furnish  good  work. 

A  builder  of  machinery  can  easily  economize,  by  reducing  the  quantity  of  mate- 
rial used  in  different  parts,  by  substituting  wood  or  cast  iron  for  wrought  iron,  iron 
for  brass  or  steel,  by  leaving  some  parts  rough  instead  of  planing  or  turning  them, 
and  by  employing  cheap  help  and  tools.  A  high-priced  machine  may  thus  be  found 
cheap  when  compared  with  one  of  the  same  size,  but  of  different  make,  which  was 
perhaps  sold  for  much  less. 

In  case  of  sudden  breaks  it  is  of  great  value  to  have  a  good  machine-shop  within 
easy  reach  of  the  mill,  and  thus  to  avoid  the  delays  of  distant  transportation ;  to 


BUILDINGS. 


375 


encourage  home  industry,  in  the  narrowest  as  well  as  in  the  fullest  meaning  of  the 
word,  is  therefore — everything  else  being  equal — the  paper-maker's  best  policy. 

Large  mills  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  have  a  small  machine-shop  of  their 
own,  and  even  those  of  moderate  size  find  sufiicient  use  for  a  forge,  lathe,  and  drill, 
with  the  necessary  tools. 

A  supply  of  lumber,  taps,  and  dies  for  screws,  wrought-iron  pipes  and  fixtures, 
and  a  millwright  with  his  tools  should  be  on  hand  in  every  paper-mill. 


SECTION  XI. 
Buildings. 

314.  Plans  .and  Building-Materials. — The  price  of  the  different  building  materials 
and  the  quality  of  the  paper  which  is  to  be  made  should  decide  the  character  of  the 
buildings.  The  manufacture  of  the  lowest  and  cheapest  grades  of  paper  does  not 
justify  the  erection  of  costly  houses,  while  to  maintain  the  perfect  cleanliness  so  essen- 
tial for  fine  papers,  nothing  will  be  of  as  much  assistance  as  substantial,  well-lighted 
and  constructed  work-rooms,  in  the  erection  of  which,  however,  not  one  dollar  should 
be  spent  for  the  sake  of  appearance  only. 

A  perfect  plan  of  the  mill  and  machinery,  with  all  their  details,  must  be  made 
by  a  competent  person  before  ground  is  broken  for  the  foundation,  and  before  any 
of  the  machinery  is  ordered,  as  it  is  much  easier  and  cheaper  to  correct  errors  on 
paper  than  in  stone  and  iron.  Mills  which  might  have  been  prosperous,  have  become 
failures  because  this  has  been  neglected,  and  many  thousands  are  often  spent  in 
remedying  the  evils  of  bad  planning. 

The  water  and  steam  which  abound  in  paper-mills,  are  destructive  to  all  kinds 
of  wood.  Iron  and  stone  should  therefore  take  the  place  of  wood  as  far  as  possible, 
and  if  lumber  must  be  used,  only  such  kinds  should  be  selected,  which,  like  white  oak, 
yellow  and  white  pine,  are  able  to  withstand  for  a  long  time  the  influence  of  a  moist 
atmosphere. 

The  latest  and  best-constructed  New  England  writing  paper-mills  are  solid 
three-  or  four-story  brick  buildings,  with  a  separate  two-story  wing  for  the  paper- 
machines. 

The' ground  floor  contains  the  drainers  for  bleached  pulp,  gearing,  tubs  for  the 
preparation  of  animal  size,  stuff'-chests,  and  sometimes  the  rag-boilers ;  the  paper- 
machines,  all  the  washing  and  beating-engines,  and,  wherever  it  is  feasible,  the  rotaries, 
occupy  the  second  floor.  The  third  and  fourth  stories  are  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
of  which,  above  the  rag-boilers,  contains  the  thrashers,  cutters,  dusters,  sorting  and 
store-rooms  for  rags,  while  the  other,  nearest  to  the  paper-machine,  is  fitted  up  as  a 


376 


GEJSTEEAL  BEMABKS. 


finishing-room.  All  the  available  space  on  top  of  the  building  or  the  lofts,  are  used 
as  drying-rooms  for  the  surface-sized  sheets. 

In  order  to  carry  out  a  strict  separation  between  the  rag-department  and  the  finish- 
ing-rooms and  lofts,  each  division  is  sometimes  supplied  with  a  separate  elevator. 

The  iron  ladders  which  are  fastened  to  the  outside  of  these  buildings  as  a  means 
of  escape  for  the  employees  in  the  upper  stories,  in  case  of  fire,  are  a  feature  deserving 
of  praise  and  imitation. 

Every  story  carries  machinery  of  some  kind ;  the  walls  are  therefore  strong,  and 
the  floors,  supported  by  strong  iron  girders  and  columns,  are  composed  of  3-inch 
planks,  covered  with  1-inch  flooring-boards  above  and  |-inch  flooring-boards  below, 
or  altogether  4^  inches  thick,  and  impregnable  to  dust. 

The  steam-boilers  are  located  in  separate  buildings,  but  as  near  as  possible  to  all 
the  steam-consuming  machinery. 

315.  Fire-Proof  Paper-Mills. — The  danger  of  fire  deserves  consideration  in  the 
construction  of  any  mill,  and  is  another  reason  for  the  substitution  of  stone  and  iron 
for  wood  wherever  it  is  possible. 

It  pays  probably  best  to  build  paper-mills  perfectly  fireproof,  as  alone  the  saving 
of  all  expense  for  insurance  is  in  the  United  States  sufficiently  large  to  justify  the 
increased  outlay  of  such  a  construction,  without  taking  the  more  substantial  and  per- 
manent character  of  the  buildings  into  consideration. 

The  new  mill  at  Rockland,  near  Wilmington,  Del.,  owned  by  Messrs.  Jessup  & 
Moore,  of  Philadelphia,  has  been  built,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  half  a  million  of  dollars, 
entirely  of  stone  and  brick ;  it  has  iron  roofs,  brick  and  cement  drainers  and  stuff- 
chests,  iron  and  stone  floors,  and  iron  cutters  and  dusters  in  the  rag-room,  iron 
washers  and  beaters ;  in  fact,  there  is  hardly  any  wood  used,  excepting  the  4-inch 
flooring-planks  laid  upon  iron  joists  in  the  engine-,  machine-,  and  finishing-rooms,  all 
of  which  are  situated  in  the  second  story,  and  can  be  flooded  with  water  at  a  moment's 
notice. 

We  have  seen  mills  burned  to  a  worthless  pile  of  rubbish,  which  had  been  con- 
sidered and  really  were  fireproof;  but  they  had  been  filled  with  combustible  material, 
raw  and  manufactured,  which  created  such  a  heat  that  iron  pillars  were  bent,  and 
brick  walls  burst  as  if  they  had  been  glass. 

It  is  therefore  indispensable  that  separate  store-rooms  be  supplied,  and  that  no 
more  stock  than  is  necessary  for  one  day's  supply,  or  even  less,  should  be  allowed 
inside  at  any  one  time,  if  danger  from  fire  is  to  be  really  avoided. 


LOCATION  AND  SITE. 


377 


SECTION  XII. 
Location  and  Site. 

316.  Selection  of  a  Country. — We  observe,  in  casting  a  glance  at  the  manufactories 
of  all  civilized  nations,  that  perfection  in  any  art  is  generally  only  acquired  where  the 
production  of  a  certain  class  of  goods  has  been  the  business  of  generations,  handed 
down  from  one  to  another,  and  improved  upon  by  each  succeeding  one. 

The  largest  paper-mills  are  found,  and  the  finest  paper  is  made,  in  America  as 
well  as  in  Europe,  in  States  and  localities  which  are  in  no  way  more  favorably  situated 
than  many  others ;  they  prosper,  and  thus  invite  the  erection  of  more  such  mills  in 
the  same  neighborhood,  until  it  would  seem  to  the  superficial  observer  that  by  crowd- 
ing together  in  such  a  way,  and  selling  and  buying  necessarily  in  the  same  markets, 
they  must  be  ruined  through  competition.  Nevertheless  they  flourish,  and  are  often 
able  to  undersell  mills  located  in  a  country,  which  is  less  filled  up  with  paper-mills, 
and  which  also  furnishes  a  cheaper  supply  of  raw  materials. 

It  seems  that  a  population  of  trained  paper-makers,  connected  with  the  trade  by 
family  tradition,  is,  notwithstanding  the  substitution  of  machinery  for  hand-work,  as 
valuable  as  ever.  It  is  only  natural  that  a  mill,  in  which  even  the  most  trifling 
operation  is  conducted  by  men,  who  bring  to  their  work  not  only  their  own,  but  also 
the  experience  of  generations  before  them,  should  excel  in  every  respect. 

The  skill  and  experience  of  such  operatives  will  enable  the  manufacturer  to  pro- 
duce from  the  same  stock,  and  with  the  same  means,  a  better  grade  of  paper  than  is 
usually  obtained. 

Where  paper-mills  concentrate  there  will  be  found  machine-shops,  ready  and 
able  to  furnish  at  short  notice  any  piece  of  machinery  which  may  be  required,  as  well 
as  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  all  articles  used  by  the  paper-maker,  who  also  make 
this  branch  a  specialty,  and  improve  in  it  constantly. 

The  different  lines  of  transportation  find  it  worth  their  while  to  make  concessions 
to  the  trade,  in  Order  to  secure  the  custom  and  head  off  competition. 

The  large  number  of  mills  also  admits  of  such  a  division  of  labor,  that  every 
one  of  them  may  devote  itself  to  the  exclusive  manufacture  of  only  one  kind  of  paper, 
and  the  dealers  find  it  to  their  interest  to  assort  the  stock,  so  that  they  can  supply 
each  mill  exactly  with  the  quality  it  requires. 

These  advantages  are  frequently  undervalued,  although  the  facts  show  that  they 
are  often  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  higher  prices  which  are  paid  for  raw  material 
and  labor,  as  compared  with  isolated  mills  in  countries  where  little  j)aper  is  manu- 
factured.   The  lower  the  grade  of  the  paper  the  less  skill  is,  with  few  exceptions, 

48 


378 


GENERAL  REMARKS. 


required  from  the  operatives ;  the  paper  trade  sends  therefore  into  countries  which 
are  devoid  of  the  blessings  of  our  art,  as  pioneers  first  wrapping-mills ;  they  pave  the 
way,  and  are  followed  by  those  for  print  and  other  medium  grades,  which  make  up 
the  body  of  our  army.  The  headquarters,  or  the  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  the  finest 
papers,  usually  remains  in  the  original  settlements,  or  moves  only  very  slowly,  the 
price  of  fine  pajjers  being  so  high  that  they  may  be  shipped  to  distant  parts  for  a 
small  proportion  of  their  cost. 

It  is  difficult  to  carry  on  paper-making  in  new  countries,  or  in  old  ones  devoid 
of  factories,  although  it  may  be  favored  by  low  prices  for  raw  material  and  high  ones 
for  paper;  failures  of  the  most  promising  undertakings  of  this  kind  are  therefore  not 
unfrequent. 

Good  management  is  the  condition  of  success  anywhere,  but  in  a  much  higher 
degree  with  paper-mills,  located  far  from  machine-shops  which  are  used  to  build 
paper  machinery,  with  perhaps  poor  facilities  for  transportation,  and  surrounded  by 
an  unskilled  population. 

317.  Site. — The  selection  of  a  site  for  a  paper-mill  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance 
and  must  be  done  with  great  care. 

It  is  supposed  that  nobody  would  embark  in  such  an  enterprise  without  having 
determined  at  least  what  quantity  and  kind  of  paper  is  to  be  made,  and  where  it  is  to 
find  a  market ;  and  a  site  must  therefore  be  looked  for  within  reasonable  distance 
from  that  locality. 

If,  for  instance,  rag  print-paper  shall  be  made,  and  the  market  is  a  large  city,  it 
is  desirable  to  locate  as  close  to  it  as  possible  at  a  point  where  either  rail  or  water 
communication,  or  both,  can  be  had.  A  water-power  is  naturally  first  looked  for,  and 
if  one  can  be  obtained  in  such  a  location,  which  is  permanent  or  sufficient  during  the 
whole  year,  with  a  mill  site  which  is  not  exposed  to  floods,  it  is  worth  a  considerable  sum. 
From  60  to  100  effective  horse-jjower  are  required  for  the  manufacture  of  from  about 
2000  to  4000  pounds  of  paper  from  rags  in  twenty-four  hours ;  but  if  imperfections, 
straw,  wood,  or  other  prepared  fibres  are  used,  smaller  powers  will  be  sufficient.  A 
plentiful  supply  of  wash- water  is  also  to  be  provided  for,  and  its  purity  is  of  so  much 
greater  importance  as  the  j^aper  is  to  be  of  better  quality  and  color. 

Sites  which  unite  good  water-powers,  with  an  ample  supply  of  pure  wash-water, 
if  located  in  proximity  to  the  markets,  are  scarce  and  dear,  and  our  choice  is  mostly 
confined  to  either  steam-power  near  the  city  or  water-power  at  a  distance. 

It  is  quite  appropriate  to  consider  in  this  connection  the  gradual  depreciation  of 
the  water-powers  and  the  causes  thereof. 

318.  Depreciation  of  Water-Powers. — Woods  are  the  regulators  for  our  streams ; 
they  protect  the  ground  by  their  foliage  against  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  enable  the 
water  contained  in  it — by  preventing  a  rapid  evaporation — to  flow  out  gradually, 
and  to  nurse  the  creeks  and  rivers  during  the  hot  seasons. 

It  is  well  known  that  woods  are  cooler  than  the  surrounding  cleared  and  culti- 
vated soil,  and  when  hot  air  loaded  with  moisture — clouds — comes  within  their  in- 


LOCATION  AND  SITE. 


379 


fluence,  the  lower  temperature  causes  some  of  the  moisture  to  condense  and  to  fall 
down  as  rain.  It  has  been  found  that,  where  woods  or  large  numbers  of  trees  have 
been  artificially  planted  on  prairie-lands,  rain  showers,  before  unknown,  became  quite 
frequent  during  the  summer.  The  present  sterility  of  the  once  fertile  and  prosperous 
countries  of  Eastern  Asia,  especially  of  the  Holy  Land,  is  attributed  by  the  best 
authorities  to  the  destruction  of  its  trees. 

The  unusual  often-repeated  floods  in  the  south  of  France,  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  III,  caused  damage  and  loss  of  property  to  such  an  extent  that  something 
had  to  be  done  to  prevent  them.  Millions  were  spent  in  rectifying  the  courses  of 
rivers,  but  without  the  desired  result,  until  at  last  the  government  undertook  the 
replanting  of  trees  on  an  enormous  scale  where  the  woods  had  years  ago  been  cut 
down. 

The  wholesale  destruction  of  the  woods  decreases  constantly  the  value  of  our 
water-powers,  and  especially  of  those  on  short  streams.  The  rains  are  no  longer 
absorbed  by  millions  of  trees  and  by  the  protected  soil  below  them,  but  run  off 
nearly  as  fast  as  they  fall,  creating  freshets,  and  leaving  no  filled  reservoirs,  except 
occasionally  a  lake,  behind  them,  from  which  our  rivers  might  draw  a  supply  during 
the  summer. 

319.  Comparative  Value  of  Water  and  Steam-Powers. — The  rental  value  of  a  con- 
stant water-power  near  the  city  or  market  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  money  which  would 
have  to  be  spent  for  the  production  of  the  same  power  with  steam  in  the  same 
locality. 

For  a  water-power  at  a  distance,  the  cost  of  transportation  of  paper  from  and 
material  to  the  mill  must  be  deducted.  About  2  tons  of  raw  material,  such  as  rags 
and  chemicals,  are  required  in  a  rag-mill,  and  about  4  tons  in  a  straw  print-mill, 
for  every  ton  of  white  paper  produced,  without  counting  the  fuel. 

In  many  cases,  where  transportation  is  made  costly  by  bad  roads  or  want  of  rail- 
road or  water  communication,  this  item  is  sufficient  to  reduce  the  value  of  the  site  to 
nothing.  We  even  know  of  mills,  situated  in  the  country,  which  could  be  run  by 
steam  at  the  city  or  market  with  less  money  than  is  at  present  expended  for  railroad 
freight  and  teaming,  while  they  are  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  periodical  floods  and 
to  scarcity  of  water.  Such  sites  are  worth  less  than  nothing,  unless  they  have  other 
advantages  by  which  these  drawbacks  may  be  offset. 

Some  mills  buy  all  their  rags  from  the  peddlers  or  first  gatherers  in  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  thus  add  the  profits  of  the  rag  dealer  to  those  of  the  manufac- 
turer ;  others  draw  their  supply  of  straw  from  the  neighborhood ;  fuel  and  lime  are 
perhaps  cheaj)er  than  near  the  city ;  and  one  or  several  of  these  advantages  combined 
may  turn  the  scale  in  favor  of  the  country. 

If  a  mill  is  near  the  market  the  owner  is  enabled  to  be  his  own  agent  and  to 
superintend  the  mill  besides ;  and  by  saving  the  profits  of  the  middle-men  or  commis- 
sion merchants,  he  frequently  realizes  more  than  the  most  splendid  but  far-off  water- 
power  could  make  up. 


380 


GENEBAL  REMARKS. 


The  innDortance  of  a  water-power  is  greater  for  some  kinds  of  paper  and  stock 
than  for  others.  If,  for  instance,  waste-paper,  which  is  gathered  in  large  quantities 
only  in  the  cities,  is  the  raw  material  used,  the  power  required  is  not  very  large,  and 
a  mill  near  the  city  may  probably  work  it  up  at  less  cost  with  steam  than  one  far  off 
with  a  water-power.  A  good  water-power  is,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly  indisjjeusable 
for  a  Manilla-paper  mill,  as  the  quantity  of  stock  used  and  of  paper  made  is  small  in 
comparison  with  the  power  which  is  required. 


SECTION  XIII. 
Capital. 

320.  Cost  of  Paper-Mills. — Sufficient  capital  is  one  of  the  first  necessities  in  any 
business.  A  paper-mill  may  have  been  built  partly  with  borrowed  money,  or  the 
means  to  carry  it  on  may  have  been  procured  on  credit,  but  their  forthcoming  must 
be  assured  before  the  first  stone  is  laid. 

The  erection  of  paj^er-mills  has  frequently  been  undertaken  with  insufficient 
capital,  based  on  estimates  made  by  machinists,  builders,  or  other  interested  parties, 
and  the  inability  to  provide  the  additional  means,  which  were  subsequently  found  to 
be  required  for  their  comj^letion,  or  the  procuring  of  a  loan  on  ruinous  conditions, 
has  in  many  cases  been  the  cause  of  failure  and  loss  of  all  j^revious  investments. 

Even  carefully  made  estimates  of  the  probable  cost  of  any  buildings  fall  usually 
short  of  the  actual  expense,  and  the  author,  having  been  trusted  with  the  erection  of 
new  paper-mills  and  the  renovation  of  old  ones,  and  being  fully  aware  of  this  fact, 
has  in  every  instance  endeavored  to  calculate  the  prospective  cost  high  enough,  but 
his  figures  only  served  to  confirm  the  experience  of  others — they  were  considerably 
too  low. 

The  probable  cost  of  new  mills  should  be  ascertained  from  the  actual  expense  of 
other  establishments,  which  have  been  built  in  a  similar  manner  and  under  similar 
circumstances,  and  the  means  provided  should  be  largely  in  excess  of  that  sum,  so 
that  unforeseen  difficulties  can  be  met  without  embarrassment. 

321.  Working  Capital. — If  all  the  available  capital  has  been  absorbed  by  the 
erection  of  the  mill,  the  manufacturer  will  be  compelled  to  purchase  his  raw  materials 
on  credit,  and  to  sell  his  paper  for  cash,  or  to  consign  it  against  advances  to  a  com- 
mission house.  He  is  thus  embarrassed  from  the  start,  and  finds  himself  compelled 
to  deal  exclusively  through  commission  merchants,  who  naturally  take  the  cream  of 
the  earnings  of  the  mill  for  their  money  and  labor. 

If  the  paper-maker  is  lucky  enough  to  make  such  a  connection  with  a  well- 
meaning,  solid  party,  if  he  manages  well,  and  understands  his  business,  he  will  prob- 
ably succeed  against  all  odds,  and  make  himself,  in  the  course  of  time,  financially 


CAPITAL. 


381 


independent ;  but  otherwise  he  must  remain  in  a  chronic  state  of  poverty,  or  end  with 
a  failure. 

The  products  of  tlie  mills  are  distributed  to  the  public  by  the  dealers,  who  form 
a  necessary  factor  of  the  paper  trade.  But  while  the  services  of  these  middle-men 
cannot  be  dispensed  with,  the  manufacturer  should  select  those  with  whom  he  wishes 
to  enter  into  business  relations, — a  freedom  of  action  wdiich  he  can  only  preserve  by 
the  possession  of  sufficient  capital.  If  he  is  short  of  funds,  he  will  be  at  the  mercy 
of  some  one  of  their  number,  who  makes  the  required  advances. 

322.  Conditions  of  Success. — The  capital  invested  should  bear  the  right  propor- 
tion to  the  value  of  the  manufactured  paper.  A  wrapping-mill  should  be  built  as 
cheaply  as  possible,  while  the  best  of  material  and  labor  should  be  employed  in  the 
construction  of  a  mill  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  papers. 

Although  the  price  of  labor  is  higher  in  the  United  States,  the  value  of  the 
production  of  j^Jiper-mills  is  here  fully  as  large  in  proportion  to  the  invested  capital 
as  in  Europe,  because  the  relative  prices  of  building  material,  machinery,  and  paper 
are  about  the  same.  We  have  found  from  numerous  observations  in  different  coun- 
tries that  the  following  rules  will  apply  everywhere. 

The  value  of  the  products  or  sales  of  a  paper-mill  during  one  year,  should  never 
be  less  than  an  amount  equal  to  the  capital  invested. 

If  the  mill  has  been  economically  built,  supplied  with  good  machinery,  and  is 
well  managed,  its  yearly  sales  may  amount  to  twice  as  nmch  as  the  capital,  and  we 
have  even  found  some  mills,  making  the  better  kinds  of  jjrint  and  book-paper,  which 
sold  during  one  year  three  dollars'  worth  of  paper  for  every  dollar  of  their  invest- 
ment (exclusively  of  working  capital).  Such  mills  are  nearly  always  prosperous;  the 
proportion  of  sales  to  capital  giving  generally  a  very  good  measure  of  their  success. 

Economy  of  manufacture  requires  that  a  mill  should  make  only  one  class  of 
paper ;  machinery,  buildings,  stock,  and  labor  can  then  be  provided  of  such  quantity 
and  quality  as  t6  suit  it  exactly,  and  excellence  in  that  particular  branch  can  be 
better  attained  than  if  the  grade  of  paper  has  to  be  constantly  changed. 

The  more  fully  this  system,  is  carried  out,  or  the  fewer  qualities  and  weights  of 
paper  are  manufactured,  the  more  will  the  whole  mill  assume  the  regularity  of  a 
machine,  and,  if  it  is  otherwise  well  managed,  pay  good  profits  to  the  owners.  The 
investment  is  reduced  to  the  smallest  possible  sum,  as  only  such  buildings  and 
machinery  are  put  up,  as  are  suited  to  the  one  kind  of  paper  which  is  to  be  made. 
The  quantity  of  stock  on  hand  can  be  restricted  to  a  few  weeks'  supply,  or  even  to 
less,  and  the  working  capital  will  thus  be  limited  to  a  very  small  amount. 

Even  the  largest  mills  in  the  United  States  confine  themselves  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  the  manufacture  of  one  or  a  few  kinds  of  paper,  although  they  produce  from 
10  to  20  tons  per  day. 

There  is  too  much  capital  and  labor  employed  in  a  paj^er-mill  to  permit  it  to 
stand  idle  for  want  of  power.  If  the  water-power  is  liable  to  give  out  or  to  become  in- 
sufficient for  any  long  period  during  the  year,  it  is  in  most  cases  advisable  to  supply 
the  deficiency  by  steam-power. 


382 


GENERAL  BEMABKS. 


SECTION  XIV. 
Labor  and  Management. 

323.  Labor. — The  cost  of  labor  is  only  a  small  portion  of  the  cost  of  making 
paper.  From  observations  made  in  different  countries  and  in  mills,  for  fine  as  well 
as  coarse  paper,  we  are  justified  in  stating  that  the  cost  of  labor  amounts  to  not  more 
than  fr 0711  ten  to  ttverity  per  cent,  of  the  market  value  of  finished  paper  in  Europe  as 
well  as  in  America,  or,  to  give  an  example,  the  wages  of  the  operatives  will  amount 
to  about  |100  to  $200  for  every  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  paper. 

High  wages  stimulate  the  substitution  of  machinery  for  manual  labor,  elevate 
the  working  classes,  and,  considering  that  the  ingenuity  of  man  is  fully  equal  to  the 
task  of  replacing  muscular  power  by  that  of  steam  and  water,  in  pro[)ortion  as  the 
price  of  the  former  advances,  cannot  be  otherwise  than  beneficial. 

This  theory  is  fully  proved  by  the  experience  of  the  United  States,  where,  as  we 
have  before  stated,  the  value  of  paper  bears  about  the  same  proportion  to  the  cost  of 
the  manual  labor  actually  employed  in  its  manufacture  as  in  Europe,  although  the 
j)rice  of  labor  is  here  nearly  three  times  as  high  as  there. 

A  location  in  the  country  has  very  little  advantage  over  one  near  a  city  as  far 
as  labor  is  concerned,  inasmuch  as  skilled  labor  commands  the  same  wages  almost 
everywhere,  while  the  occasionally  lower  price  of  unskilled  labor,  at  a  distance  from 
the  centres  of  population,  is  often  offset  by  the  difficulty  of  procuring  it  at  all. 

324.  Management. — The  success  or  failure  of  a  paper-mill  can  hardly  ever  be 
attributed  to  the  price  of  labor,  but  depends  very  largely  on  its  management. 

We  know  mills  with  old  and  rather  poor  buildings  and  machinery  to  be  more 
prosj^erous  than  others  splendidly  fitted  up  with  the  latest  improvements,  simply 
because  the  able  management  of  the  former  not  only  makes  up  for  its  deficiencies, 
but  also  succeeds  in  producing  a  better  article  at  the  same  expense  than  the  latter. 

We  have  seen  the  most  stupid  experiments  tried  iii  paper-mills,  when  a  slight 
knowledge  of  chemistry  would  have  prevented  them,  and  saved  a  great  deal  of  money. 
The  manager  of  a  paper-mill  is  often  called  upon  to  select  machinery,  order  repairs, 
and  generally  to  decide  what  is  to  be  done,  and  should  therefore  have  some  knowledge 
of  mechanical  engineering  and  drawing. 

The  superiority  of  many  goods  of  French  and  German  manufacture  over  the 
English  ones  at  the  last  Paris  Exhibition  has  been  attributed  principally  to  the  fact 
that  nearly  all  French  and  German  factories  are  managed  by  men  who  have  been 
educated  at  polytechnic  and  other  scientific  schools,  while  this  is  not  the  case  in 
England. 


LABOB  AND  MANAGlhlENT. 


383 


But,  while  we  value  a  scientific  education  as  a  first  class  foundation,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  it  is  practically  unavailable,  if  not  followed  by  that  experience 
which  can  only  be  acquired  by  hard  work  and  close  application  in  the  mills. 

If  a  choice  must  be  made  between  a  man  of  science  and  one  of  experience,  the 
latter  deserves  the  preference,  as  he  knows  at  all  events  what  he  has  seen  and  done 
before,  while  the  theorist  will  have  to  waste  much  money  in  learning  by  his  own 
experiments  what  the  paper-makers  know  from  the  experience  of  past  generations. 

We  have  the  greatest  regard  for  the  traditions  handed  down  from  one  paper- 
maker  to  another,  because  they  represent  a  knowledge  acquired  by  years  of  toil, 
which  has  stood  successfully  the  test  of  time. 

Through  the  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences  and  their  application  to  our  manu- 
facture we  have,  however,  been  able  to  improve  considerably  on  the  old  systems,  and  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  a  rational  production  of  paper  from  the  substitutes,  such 
as  straw,  wood,  &c.,  could  not  have  been  possible  without  their  aid. 

The  manager  of  a  paper-mill  should  have  a  knowledge  of  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, of  applied  chemistry,  of  commerce,  and  book-keeping,  and  above  all  must  he 
thoroughly  understand  the  process  of  making  paper  in  all  its  details,  however  insig- 
nificant they  may  seem. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  labor  performed  by  men  being  altogether  de- 
pendent on  the  earnestness  of  purpose  by  which  it  is  directed,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
manager  to  secure  the  good  will  of  the  operatives. 

Justice,  kindness,  and  liberality  never  fail  to  be  appreciated  by  the  mass  of  the^ 
workmen,,  although  there  may  be  some  exceptions,  but  their  strongest  eflforts  are  only*^ 
brought  out  when  they  find  that  the  interests  of  the  mill  are  identical  with  their  own.S 
Even  the  best  men  will  do  more  work  by  the  job  than  by  the  day;  their  labor  is  y 
their  capital,  and  they  do  not  want  to  spend  any  more  of  it  than  the  wages  justify. 

In  mills,  where  only  one  kind  of  paper  is  made,  and  all  eflforts  are  directed  to 
increasing  the  quantity,  nothing  will  prove  more  eflfective  than  additional  pay,  given 
to  all  hands  in  proportion  to  their  wages,  for  every  100  or  1000  pounds  of  paper  made 
over  and  above  the  usual  amount  during  a  week  or  month. 

If  different  grades  of  paper  are  manufactured,  the  additional  pay  may  be  pro- 
portionate to  their  total  market  value  or  to  the  profits  of  the  mill. 

The  operatives  are  usually  poor  and  depend  upon  their  earnings  to  provide  for 
their  families ;  if  their  wages  are  paid  only  once  per  month  they  have  to  buy  fre- 
quently on  credit ;  and  weekly  payments,  wherewith  they  are  enabled  to  buy  for  cash 
and  at  lower  prices,  have  therefore  for  many  a  purchasing  value  of  from  5  to  10  per 
cent,  more  than  monthly  ones. 

Experienced  workmen  are  necessary  for  the  success  of  a  mill,  and  it  is  the  man- 
ufacturer's interest  to  induce  the  operatives  to  make  the  neighborhood  of  the  mill 
their  permanent  home.  If  a  man  once  settles  down,  and  buys  a  homestead,  he  will 
take  a  stronger  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  country,  give  more  attention  to  the  edu- 
cation of  his  children,  and  generally  become  more  reliable  and  useful. 


384 


GtNEBAL  REMAEKS. 


The  first  step  to  tliis  end  is  saving  money.  If  the  workingman  can  only  be 
once  brought  to  save  a  part  of  his  earnings  he  soon  finds  pleasure  in  doing  so,  and 
stops  wasting  his  surplus  for  intoxicating  drinks.  We  have  induced  men,  who  used 
to  spend  a  large  part  of  their  wages  in  liquor,  on  whom  temperanre  speeches  and 
moral  teachings  had  no  effect,  to  save  money,  then  to  buy  a  homestead  and  improve 
it ;  they  have  become  better  husbands  and  fathers,  and  more  valuable  to  the  mill  and 
to  the  community  at  large. 

Manufacturers  generally  should  assist  their  employes,  rather  to  buy  or  build 
their  own  houses,  than  to  lodge  them  in  tenements.  They  will  not  only  be  benefited 
directly,  but  contribute  thereby  to  the  elevation  of  the  following  generation. 


SECTION  XV. 
Statistics. 


325.  Statistics  of  the  United  States. — The  ninth  census  of  the  United  States,  taken 
in  1870,  gives  the  number  of  paper-mills  in  the  different  States  and  Territories,  and 
the  values  of  their  jiroducts,  as  follows : 


No.  of  Estab- 

Products in 

No.  of  Estab- 

Products in 

lishments. 

Dollars. 

lishments. 

Dollars. 

Alabama, 

1 

124,000 

Montana, 

Arizona, 

Nebraska, 

Arkansas, 

Nevada, 

California, 

2 

89,700 

New  Hampshire, 

.  32 

1,673,595 

Colorado, 

1 

2,250 

New  Jersey,  . 

.  32 

1,612,321 

Connecticut,  . 

.  66 

4,874,291 

New  Mexico,  , 

Dakota, 

New  York, 

.  179 

10,757,563 

Delaware, 

1 

78,000 

North  Carolina, 

5 

166,240 

District  of  Columbia, 

1 

81,520 

Ohio,  . 

.  44 

4,010,483 

Florida, 

Oregon, 

1 

28,000 

Georgia, 

3 

184,023 

Pennsylvania, 

.  78 

5,626,946 

Idaho, 

Rhode  Island, 

1 

60,000 

Illinois, 

.  19 

1,120,586 

South  Carolina, 

2 

79,000 

Indiana, 

.  17 

780,152 

Tennessee, 

3 

149,450 

Iowa, 

5 

99,885 

Texas, 

Kansas,  . 

Utah,  . 

1 

4,330 

Kentucky, 

2 

147,500 

Vermont, 

.  12 

318,510 

Louisiana, 

Virginia, 

4 

244,268 

Maine, 

.  12 

1,214,607 

West  Virginia, 

4 

212,182 

Maryland, 

.  26 

948,710 

Washington,  . 

Massachusetts, 

.  95 

12,687,481 

Wisconsin, 

6 

373,200 

Michigan, 

.  11 

499,392 

Wyoming, 

Minnesota, 

2 

140,750 

Mississippi, 

669  \ 

^8,436,935 

Missouri, 

1 

48,000 

STATISTICS. 


385 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  statement  that  669  paper-mills  in  the  United  States  pro- 
duced in  1870  nearly  fifty  million  dollars'  worth  of  paper. 

General  F.  A.  Walker,  Chief  of  the  Census  Bureau,  stated  to  the  author,  however, 
that  the  data  obtained  from  the  paper  manufacturers  have  been  less  satisfactory  than 
those  received  from  any  other  branch  of  industry,  and  that  the  figures  given  above 
cannot  be  considered  as  very  reliable. 

326.  Statistics  of  all  Countries. — Mr.  C.  A.  A.  Rudel  gives  in  his  Jnhrbuch  fiir 
Papier  Fabi^ication,  second  edition,  Dresden,  1873,  the  following  statistics  concerning 
the  manufacture  of  paper  in  all  countries : 

"  The  earth  is  pojDulated  by  1360  millions  of  human  beings,  but  only  360  millions 
use  for  purposes  of  writing,  j)rinting,  wrapping,  &c.,  the  felted  web,  which  is  incor- 
rectly called  paperT 

The  total  yearly  production  amounts  to  1800  million  (German)  j)ounds,  which 
are  distributed  according  to  the  following  table : 


%  s 

S  J 

—  1*1 

c 

Pa- 
red, 
nds. 

P-i  ja 

a  "> 

1  1 

^  = 

2 

t  of 
actu 
pou 

COUNTRIES. 

"•Hi 

g  S  i 

O 

a 

m  ^ 

o  3 

I 

o  x 

.=  a 

1  i  I 

3  =  P. 

1  s  ^ 

•^  cS 

3  S 

■a  S, 

•  1  a 

1=  P 
S  w  =s 
s  S  .a 

1 1 
a  2  c3 

■§  ^ 
a  7i 

5  a 

a 

Belgium,  

19 

39 

44  600  000 

5 

8 

400  000 

45,000,000 

Denmark,  

5 

9 

7,100,000 

1 

2 

100,000 

7,200,000 

Germany,  

423 

539 

335,600,000 

171 

291 

24,400,000 

360,000,000 

Austria,  

130 

186 

139,200,000 

84 

123 

4,800,000 

144,000,000 

France,  

404 

510 

281,000,000 

230 

360 

15,000,000 

296,000,000 

Greece,  

Great  Britain,  .... 

274 

420 

349,900,000 

95 

253 

10,100,000 

360,000,000 

Italy,  

67 

100 

91,600,000 

49 

145 

4,400,000 

96,000,000 

Netherlands,  .... 

10 

13 

13,000,000 

11 

36 

1,400,000 

14,400,000 

Norway  and  Sweden, 

20 

28 

26,200,000 

8 

20 

800,000 

27,000,000 

Portugal,  

16 

20 

11,100,000 

8 

22 

900,000 

12,000,000 

Russia,  

66 

98 

63,100,000 

45 

98 

3,900,000 

67,000,000 

Switzerland,  .... 

30 

39 

19,500,000 

8 

12 

500,000 

20,000,000 

Spain,  

17 

21 

13,800,000 

122 

272 

12,200,000 

26,000,000 

Turkey,  

Africa,  

1 

3 

100,000 

100,000 

1 

1 

400,000 

2 

3 

100,000 

500,000 

Brazil,  

1 

1 

800,000 

800,000 

Canada,  

2 

2 

1,000,000 

1,000,000 

Mexico,  Peru,  .... 

United  States,  .... 

467 

634 

317,000,000 

100 

150 

6,000,000 

323,000,000 

Asia,  Australia,   .    .  . 

1,952 

2,660 

1,714,900,000 

940 

1,798 

85,100,000 

1,800,000,000 

49 


386 


GENERAL  BEMARKS. 


The  total  consumption  of  paper  in  different  countries,  and  the  consumption 
culated  per  head  of  their  populations,  are  given  by  Mr.  Rudel,  as  follows: 


COUNTRIES. 

Total  num- 
ber of  in- 
habitants 
— in  niil- 

Total  consump- 
tion of  paper — in 
German  pounds. 

Paper  manu- 
factured per 
head  of  the 
population  — 
in  German 
pounds. 

Paper  consum- 
ed per  head 
of  the  popula- 
tion— in  Ger- 
111  till  jpouuds 

oO,UUU,UUU 

Q 

7 

JL.O 

7  OAA  AAA 

A 

4 

A 

He 

40  0 

QOA  AAA  AAA 

q 

» 

O 

OD.U 

1  ^fi  AAA  AAA 

A 
■i 

o  /  .U 

onn  AAA  AAA 

Q 

O 

7 
< 

BAA  AAA 

i 

30.0 

330,000,000 

12 

11 

Italy,  

24.0 

96,000,000 

4 

4 

3.6 

14,400,000 

4 

4 

Norway  and  Sweden 

6.0 

21  000  000 

^2 

3i 

4.0 

14,000,000 

3  - 

3i 

Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro,  . 

3.6 

1,800,000 

1 

2 

67.0 

67,000,000 

1 

1 

.2.5 

17,500,000 

8 

7 

26.0 

26,000,000 

1 

1 

27.0 

13,500,000 

1 
2 

315.0 

1,349,200,000 

4i 

4-1- 

^8 

38.0 

418,000,000 

8i 

11 

COUNTRIES. 

Total   population — 
in  millions. 

The  number  of  in- 
habitants who  con- 
sume   pa])er  —  in 
millions. 

Total  consumption 
of  paper — in  Ger- 
man pounds. 

Africa,  

190. 

1.5 

4,500,000 

America,  

84. 

Brazil,  

11. 

0.8 

3,200,000 

Canada,  

4.0 

0.8 

4,800,000 

Mexico,  

9.0 

0.6 

2,200,000 

Peru,  

2.5 

0.1 

300,000 

United  States,  

38.0 

38.0 

418,000.000 

6.5 

0.8 

6,400,000 

Asia,  

760. 

1.2 

5,700,000 

Australia,  

4.5 

1.2 

5,700,000 

Europe,  

315.0 

315. 

1,349,200,000 

1360. 

360. 

1,800,000,000 

STATISTICS. 


387 


These  1800  million  pounds  consist,  according  to  the  same  authority,  of 

Writing  paper,   300  million. 

Printing  paper,   .........  900  " 

Wrapping,  hanging,  colored  paper,  &c.,      ....  400  " 

Boards,  cards,  &c.,   200  " 

1800  " 

The  total  consumption  of  paper  is  stated  to  be  distributed  among  the  different 
branches  of  human  society  in  the  following  proportions : 


Government  offices,  . 
Schools, 

Merchants,      .  . 
Trades  and  manufactures, 
Letters  and  individuals, 
Printers  and  publishers. 


from  10  to  12  per  cent. 
"  10  "  12 
"  12  "  14 
6  "  8 
"  4  "  6 
"    50  "  56 


The  raw  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  1800  million  pounds  of  paper 
are  derived  from 


2,000  million  pounds  of  wool,  taken  from  218  million  sheep, 

and  furnishing  200  million  pounds  of  rags, 
2,000  million  pounds  of  cotton,  which  has  been  spun  with  the 
aid  of  100  million  spindles,  ..... 

2,000  million  pounds  of  flax  and  hemp,  which  have  been  worked 
into  cloth,  ........ 

200  million  pounds  of  esparto,  jute,  agave,  aloe,  &c.,  . 

400  "  "  straw,  

400  "  "  wood,   

750  "  •'    chemicals,  resin,  oils,  starch,  colors, 

and  clays,  ........ 

3,000  million  pounds  of  coal,  which  have  been  used  as  fuel. 


100  million  pounds  of  paper. 

500       "       "  " 

400 
100 
100 
200 

300 


10,750 


"    raw  materials, 


1800 


The  capital  invested  in  the  manufacture  of  these  1800  million  pounds  of  paper 
is  represented  by  the  following  amounts : 


Cost  of  mills,  in  which  paper  is  made  on  machines,      205,788,000  thalers,  or  about  $154,341,000 

by  hand,     .        8,512,000     "  "  6,384,000 

Working  capital,       55,700,000     "  "  41,775,000 


Total  capital  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  270,000,000 


(gold)  $202,500,000 


388 


GENERAL  BEMABKS. 


Tlie  manual  labor  which  is  required  for  the  production  of  1800  million  pounds 
of  paper  is  performed  by 

Men  in  paper-mills,  where  paper  is  made  on  machines,    .  76,000 

"     by  hand,  .       .  12,000 

  88,000 

Women  in  paper-mills,  where  paper  is  made  on  machines,  152,000 

"     by  hand,     .  6,000 

  158,000 

Foremen  and  other  employes,        .       .  4,000 
Total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  250,000 

The  data  given  by  Mr,  Kudel  are  not  quite  correct,  especially  as  far  as  the 
United  States  and  Canada  are  concerned.  The  numbers  given  for  the  factories  of 
these  two  countries  are  too  low,  and,  while  the  United  States  can  boast  that  there  is 
no  j^aper  made  by  hand  within  their  borders,  Mr,  Rudel  credits  them  with  one  hun- 
dred hand  paper-mills. 

The  tables  will,  however,  be  found  to  indicate,  with  some  approach  to  accuracy, 
the  comparative  state  of  civilization  attained  by  the  population  of  the  different  coun- 
tries, assuming  as  we  do  that 


THE  CONSUMPTION  OF  PAPER  IS  THE  MEASURE  OF  A  PEOPLE'S  CULTURE. 


Index. 


Acidulating  washed  and  boiled  straw,  269 

Adamson's  patent,  305 

Air-drying  of  boards,  328 

required  for  combustion  of  fuel,  349 

-roll  for  the  wet-press  of  a  paper  machine,  152 

Alkalimetrical  test,  264 

Alpaca  jackets  for  the  first  press  of  straw-paper 

machines,  294 
Alum,  for  purifying  wash-water,  340 

quantity  of,  used  for  sizing,  91 

used  for  binding  clay,  93 

used  for  bleaching,  70 
Aluminous  cake  or  sulphate  of  alumina,  89 
Alums,  comparative  values  of,  89 
American  Wood-paper  Company's  works,  300 
Amyloid  from  cellulose,  333 
Aniline,  blue,  97 

colors,  97 

red,  97 
Animal-sizing,  203 
Annealed  wires,  128 
Antichlorine,  80 

Application  of  animal  size,  machine  for  the,  205 
Aprons,  24,  126 

Arsenious  acid  used  in  testing  bleaching-powder, 
61 

Artesian  wells,  339 
Assortment  of  rags,  16 

Backfall  of  engines,  37, 39 

Bank-note  paper,  313 
Bar-screens,  117 

Bearings,  friction  of  shafts  in,  366 
material  of,  366 
of  beating-engines,  43 


Beating  rag-pulp,  80 

straw-pulp,  293 

waste-paper,  253 
Bedplates,  brass,  81 

Davey  &  Sons'  improved,  setting  of,  326 

for  beating-engines,  44 

of  engines,  wearing  off,  41 

Nugent  &  Coghlan's,  47 
Belts,  friction  of,  on  pulleys,  364 

speed  of,  364 

tension  of,  364 
Benzine  for  the  extraction  of  fibres  from  straw, 

wood,  &c.,  305 
Bicellulose,  242 
Bill-heads,  ruling  of,  230 
Binders'  boards,  324 
Black  color,  100 

ash  obtained  from  evaporation  of  soda  solu- 
tion, 302 
Bleach-cisterns,  63 

-liquor,  waste,  72 

-solution,  62 

-solution,  fresh  for  every  engine,  66 
-solution,  strength  of,  65 
Bleaching  boiled  waste-paper,  252 
-engines,  73 
-powders,  57 

-powders,  chemical  action  of,  58 
-powders,  strength  and  test  of,  60 
rags,  57 

straw  half-stuff,  291 
straw-pulp,  270 

with  bleach-solution  in  rotaries,  292 
with  gas,  74,  76 
wood-pulp,  304 
Blotting-paper  from  cotton  waste,  323 


390 


INDEX. 


Blowing  off  steam  from  rotaries,  28 
Blue,  aniline,  97 

preparation  of  Prussian,  94 
Bluing  paper,  origin  of,  93 
Board-machine,  324 
Boards,  324 

building-,  332 

calendering  of,  328 

drying  of,  327 

leather,  331 

pasting-machines  for,  331 

straw-,  330 
Bogus  manilla  paper,  321 
Boilers,  rotary,  26 

steam,  348 

Boiling  of  wood,  as  done  by  the  American  Wood- 
paper  Company,  301 
rags,  25 
straw,  267 
waste-paper,  248 

wood  by  Dixon's  and  other  processes,  304 
Box-boards,  330 
Boxes,  cooling  of  hot,  367 
Brass  bedplates  for  beaters,  81 

-cased  press-rolls,  148 
Brazil  Avood,  98 
Breaking  down  straw,  272 

of  the  paper  on  Fourdr.  mach.,  137,  141, 147 

of  the  paper  on  the  couch-rolls,  132 
Breast-roll  supporting  the  wire-cloth,  129 
Brown  color,  102 

Brush,  revolving,  for  Fourdrinier  wires,  143 
Buff  color,  99 

enveloi^e  color,  102 
Buffers  for  paper-rolls,  227 
Building-boards,  332 

-paper,  332 

paper-mills,  cost  of,  380 
Buildings,  planning  of,  375 

Calculation  of  sizes  of  pulleys  and  cog- 
wheels, 367 

of  speeds  of  pulleys  and  cog-wheels,  367 

of  the  power  of  steam  engines,  360 

of  water-powers,  343 
Calendering  boards,  328 

press-boards,  329 
Calender-rolls,  chilled,  164 
Calenders  of  the  paper  machine,  162 

plate-,  217 

super-,  for  sheets,  217 


C-ane,  growth  and  gathering  of,  310 
Canvas  dryer-felts,  160 
Capacity  of  beating-engines,  55 
Capital,  working,  380 
Carbonate  of  lime,  264 

of  soda,  262 
Carbonizing  straw  fibres  by  excess  of  chlorine  in 

bleaching,  291 
Car-wheels  of  paper  (straw-boards),  331 
Caustic  lime,  264 

soda,  263 

sofUi-ash,  263 

soda-solution,  preparation  of,  264 
Cells,  forming  cellulose,  241 
Cellulose,  241 

in  contact  with  sulphuric  acid,  333 
Centrifugal  action  of  the  Kingsland  engine,  105 

drainers,  74 
Chaff  in  straw,  259 

Change  of  the  speed  of  paper-machines,  189 
Check-valve  for  rag-boilers,  28 
Chemical  action  of  bleachiug-powders,  58 

impurities  in  wash-water,  337 
Chemistry,  knowledge  of,  383 
Chest,  stuff.  111 
Chilled  calender-rolls,  164 
Chimneys  for  steam-boilers,  349 
China  clay,  91 
Chloride  of  calcium,  57 

of  lime,  57 

of  sodium  in  wash-water,  337 

of  sodium,  used  for  the  production  of  chlo- 
rine gas,  76 
Chlorine  gas,  qualities  and  preparation  of,  75 
Chopping  wood  for  digestion  in  boilers,  300 
Chromate  of  potassa,  98 
Chrome  orange,  98 

yellow,  98 
Circulation  of  pulp  in  engines,  36,  49 
Cisterns  for  bleach  solution,  63 
Clay,  91 

loss  of,  92 

Cleaning-brush  for  Fourdrinier  wires,  143 
Clippings  of  hides  for  animal  size,  203 
Cloudy  appearance  of  the  paper,  132 
Clutches  for  the  paper-machine,  152 
Coal,  combustion  of,  349 

-dust  from  chimneys,  350 

-oil,  371 

-oil  used  in  steam-boilers,  354 
Cochineal  red,  97 


INDEX. 


391 


Cockling  of  paper  on  the  dryers,  156 
Cog-wheels,  365 

Collar-paper,  manufacture  of,  316 
Colored  rags  for  coloring  paper,  100 
Coloring,  93 

the  pulp,  102 
Combination  of  colors,  100 
Combustion  of  coal,  349 

Comparative  value  of  water  and  steam-power,  379 

Comparison  of  overshot  and  turbine  wheels,  347 

Concentrated  alum,  89 

Condensation  of  steam,  359 

Condensing  engines,  359 

Conditions  of  success  of  paper-mills,  381 

Construction  of  rotary  boilers,  32 

of  steam-boilers,  352 

of  straw-boilers,  275 
Consumption  of  fuel  in  paper-mills,  358 

of  paper — see  Statistics,  386 
Continuous  feed-cutter,  172 
Contraction  of  paper  on  the  dryers,  156 
Cooling  hot  boxes,  367 
Copperas,  94 

Corn-husks,  composition  of,  256 
Cost  of  building  paper-mills,  380 
Cotton  fibre,  243 
Cotton-waste  paper,  322 
Couch-rolls,  129,  132 

with  soft  rubber  jackets,  131 
Counting  and  folding  paper,  216 
Countries  suitable  for  paper-mills,  377 
Covering  pipes,  363 

Cresson's  patent  for  boiling  straw  and  wood,  279 
Crushers  for  straw,  273 
Crystallized  alum,  89 

Crystals  of  soda,  used  for  solutions  of  resin,  85 
Cutters  for  paper  in  the  web,  171 
for  rags,  18 

selection  of  paper-,  184 
Cutter-table,  184 
Cutting-machine  for  wood,  300 

paper  length  way  on  the  machine,  170 

rags  by  hand,  16 

ropes,  325 

straw,  261 

Cylinder-machine,  merits  and  demerits  of  the,  199 

paper-machine,  196 
Cylinders,  combination  of  several  making-,  200 

Dams,  343 

Dandy-roll,  136 


Davey  &  Sons'  board-mill,  325 
Dead  finish  on  bank-note  paper,  314 
Deckels,  12 

for  Fourdrinier  wires,  139 
Depreciation  of  water-powers,  378 
Dextrin,  241 
Digestion  of  straw,  267 

of  wood  at  the   Manayunk  pulp  works, 
301 

Diluting  pulp  for  the  paper-machine,  115 

Dippers  in  dr3^ing-cylinders,  154 

Discharge-valve  for  beating-engines,  56 

Distillation  of  petroleum,  371 

Division  of  labor  in  manufacturing  paper,  381 

Dixon's  straw-boiler,  275 

Doctors  for  press-rolls,  148 

Dog-cutter,  177 

Drab  color,  102 

Draft  for  steam-boilers,  349 

-tubes  of  turbines,  346 
Drainer,  wet-machine  as,  74 
Drainers,  centrifugal,  74 

for  rag  pulp,  71 
Draining  rag  pulp,  71 

wood  half-stuff,  301 
Dryer-felts,  160 
Dryers,  153 

for  straw-boards,  330 

gearing  size  and  disposition  of,  159 

width  and  number  of,  161 
Drying-apparatus  for  boards,  327 

-cylinders,  construction  of,  153 

-lofts,  construction  and  management  of,  210 

paper  with  escaped  steam,  187 

press-boards,  329 

-room  for  boards,  328 

surface-sized  paper,  comparisons  of  different 
systems  of,  215 

surface-sized  paper  in  the  web,  212 
Dusters  for  rags,  21 
Dusting  waste-paper,  247 

Efficiency  of  washers,  54 

Elbow-plates,  44 

Electric  protection  of  straw-boilers.  Keen's,  286 
Electricity  of  paper  on  leaving  the  super-calen- 
ders, 222 
of  the  paper  on  the  machine,  169 
Elevator-pump,  342 
Elevators,  369 

Emery  wheels  for  turning  chilled  rolls,  165 


392 


INDEX. 


Endless  rolls  of  paper,  185 

Engine  and  surface-sizing,  comparison  of,  82 

foundation  for  beating-,  56 

gearing  of  beatiug-,  43 

Gould's  pulping-,  110 

Jordan's  pulping-,  106 

Kiugsland's  jaulping-,  103 

-rolls,  38 

-shafts,  38 

washing-,  35 

bleaching-,  73 
Escaped  steam,  utilization  of,  359 
Esparto,  composition  of,  256 

grass,  its  sources  and  growth,  297 

grass,  its  supply,  299 

grass,  its  treatment  in  the  mills,  298 
Evaporation  of  once  used  soda-solution,  302 

of  waste  soda-solution,  296 
Expanding  pulley,  T.  H.  Savery's,  190 
Expansion  of  steam  in  engines,  358 

of  steam  in  engines,  table  for  the,  360 
Experience,  importance  of  practical,  383 
Explosions  of  rag-boilers,  29 

of  steam-boilers,  354 
Extraction  of  tannic  acid  from  cane  fibres,  311 

Fan  -PUMPS  for  cylinder  paper-machines,  196 

for  Fourdrinier  paper-machines,  115 
Feed-rolls  for  rag-cutters,  19 

-water  for  steam-boilers,  353 
Felt-carrying  rolls  for  paper-jnachines,  149 

upi)er  wet,  for  straw  boards,  330 

-washers,  151 
Felts  for  the  presses  of  paper-machines,  149 

management  of,  152 
Ferrocyanide  of  iron,  94 

of  2)otassium,  94 
Fibres,  241 

obtained  from  cane  by  Lyman's  process,  311 
of  mechanically  prepared  wood-pulp,  309 

Fields'  patent  lining-apparatus,  331 

Filters  for  wash-water,  336 

Finger-guard  on  calenders,  163 

Fingers  for  super-calenders,  220 

Finishing  common  paper,  216 

Fire-escape  in  jJaper-mills,  376 

Firemen,  quality  of,  352 

Fire-proof  paper-mills,  37G 
-test  of  coal-oil,  372 

Firing  of  steam-boilers,  350 

Flax  fibre,  243 


Fletcher's  improvement  on  Gavit's  cutter,  175 
Floods,  cause  of,  379 
Floors  for  paper-mills,  376 
Flues,  ventilating,  371 
Flybars,  37 

Foliage  of  trees,  composition  of,  256 
Forming-cylinder  of  cylinder  paper-mach.,  199 
Foundation  for  beating-engines,  56 

of  paper-machines,  193 

of  steam-engines,  362 
Fourneyron  turbine,  346 
Fox's  washer,  54 
Friction  of  belts  on  pulleys,  364 

-pulley  for  super-calenders,  226 
Fuel,  consumption  of,  in  paper-mills,  358 

required  for  drying  paper,  160 
Fullers'  boards,  329 
Furnishing  an  engine  with  rags,  36 

Gas  bleaching,  74,  76 

for  lighting,  373  ^ 

-machines  for  lighting,  373 

-wells,  374 
Gates  for  Fourdrinier  wires,  141 
Gauges  for  steam-jiressure  in  straw-boilers,  272 
Gavit's  cutter,  172 
Gearing  of  beating-engines,  43 

of  paper-machines,  188 
German  law  regulating  steam-boilers,  355 
GifFard's  injector  for  feeding  boilers,  354 
Glazed  boards,  329 
Glucose,  242 

Glue  for  engine-sizing,  88 

for  sizing  in  the  web,  205 
Gould's  patent  pulping-engiue,  110 
Grain  in  straw,  259 
Grate-bars,  patent,  352 

-surface  of  steam-boilers,  350 
Gravity,  specific,  of  sulphuric  acid,  68 
Grinding  engine-rolls  and  plates,  48 

press-rolls,  147 
Grindstones  for  the  manufact.  of  wood-pulp,  306 
Ground  wood-jjulp,  306 
Guard-board  on  the  couch-roll,  132 
Guide-roll  for  dryer-felts,  160 
Guillotine  rag-cutter,  18 
Gum  tragacanth  for  engine-sizing,  88 
Guns  for  the  disintegration  of  cane,  311 

Half-stuff,  35 

Hammond's  cutter,  180 


INDEX. 


393 


Hammoud's  washer,  52 
Hard  water,  338 

Harper's  improved  paper-machine,  201 
Hat  for  paper-machines,  194 
Head-race,  344 
Heater  for  boards,  327 
Heating-pipes,  steam,  370 

-surface  of  steam-boilers,  348 
Hemp  fibre,  243 
Hides  for  animal  size,  203 
High-pressure  engines,  359 
Historical  sketch  of  the  paper-machine,  114 
History  of  paper,  9 

of  the  substitutes  for  rags,  237 
Hogsheads  of  bleaching  powder,  weight  of,  62 
Hoisters,  369. 
Hollander,  11,  35 
Holyoke  duster,  22 

water-power,  344 
Horse-power  required  for  paper-mills,  378 
Houses  for  the  operatives,  384 
Housings  of  press-rolls,  145 
Humidity  of  rags,  13 
Hydraulic  presses  for  finishing  paper,  232 
Hydrocarbons  for  digestion  of  wood,  &c.,  305 
Hydrochloric  acid,  59 

influence  of,  upon  bleached  straw  fibres,  291 

used  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  304 
Hydrometer,  65 

Hydrostatic  bleaching  process,  292 
Hypochlorite  of  lime,  57 
Hypochlorous  acid,  59 

IbOTSON'S  strainer,  121 
Imperfections,  246 

Improved  processes  for  the  mechanical  prepara- 
tion of  wood-pulp,  309 
Improvement  on  Gavit's  cutter,  175 
Impurities  of  wash-water,  mechanical,  335 

of  wash-water,  chemical,  337 
Incrustations  of  steam-boilers,  354 
Indigo  blue,  97 

Iodide  of  potassium,  used  in  testing  for  chlo- 
rine, 79 

Iron,  discovery  of  in  wash-water,  338 
in  wash-water,  337 
salts  in  paper,  their  origin,  79 

JoGING  surface-sized  paper,  212 
Jonval  turbine,  346 

Jordan  &  Eustice's  pulping-engine,  106 

60 


Jordan's  and  Kingsland's  engines  comjmred,  110 
Jute,  317 

butts,  317 

paper  for  printing  pui'poses,  319 
rejections,  317 

Kaolin,  91 

Keen's  process  and  patents  for  the  digestion  of 

straw,  wood,  Ac,  281 
Kingsland's  and  Jordan's  engines,  comparison  of, 

110  . 

Kingsland's  i^ulping-eugine,  103 

Koops,  Matthias,  extracts  from  his  book,  238 

Kneeland's  lay-boy  for  surface-sized  paper,  207 

Knives  for  rag-cutters,  20 

Knocker-shafts  for  pulp-dressers,  120 

-wheels  for  pulp-di-essers,  120 
Knowledge  of  chemistry,  383 

Labor  in  paper-mllls,  382 

proportion  of,  to  the  value  of  jiaper,  382 
price  of,  in  country  and  city,  382 

Ladd's  straw-boiler,  278 

Lampblack,  100 

Lamps,  372 

Lakes  as  reservoirs  for  water-power,  344 
Law  regulating  steam-boilers  in  Qermany,  355 
Lay-boy  for  cutters,  184 

for  surface-sized  paper,  207 
Leather  boards,  331 

Lemuel  Wright's  patent  on  straw-paper,  257 
Length  of  Fourdrinier  wire-cloths,  142 

of  fibres,  303 
Lighters  of  engines,  40 
Lighting  with  gas,  373 

Avith  oil,  371 
Lime,  action  of,  in  boiling  rags,  26 

as  used  for  the  preparation  of  solutions  of 
caustic  soda,  264 

chloride  of,  57 

in  wash-water,  337 

milk  of,  27 

quantity  and  quality  of,  used  in  boiling  rags,  27 

utilization  of  waste,  265 
Lindsay's  patent  apron,  127 

rocker  for  beating-engines,  45 
Lining  straw-boards  with  paper,  330 
Location  of  paper-mills,  377 

of  rotary  boilers,  34 
Lofts  for  drying  paper,  210 
Logwood,  98 


394 


INDEX. 


Losses  of  power  in  steam-engines,  361 

in  vertical  water-wheels,  344 
Lyman's  process  for  the  disintegration  of  cane, 
&c.,  310 

Machine  for  the  application  of  animal  size, 
205 

Machine-room  for  paper-machines,  194 
Machinery,  quality  and  quantity  of,  374 
Machines,  paper,  114 
Magnesia  in  wash-water,  337 
Making-cylinder  of  cylinder  paper-machine,  199 
Management  of  paper-mills,  382 
Manchester  Paper  Company,  272 
Manganese  for  the  production  of  chlorine  gas,  75 
Manilla  grass,  317 
paper,  317 

paper,  manufacture  of,  320 
Manufacture  of  paper  by  hand,  11 
Mason's,  Volney  W.,  friction  pulley,  226 
Mean  pressure  for  expanding  steam,  360 
Measuring  water-power,  342 
Mechanical  impurities  in  wash-water,  335 

preparation  of  wood-pulp,  improved  processes 
for,  309 

Mellier's  patent  for  the  manufacture  of  straw- 
paper,  256 
Mixing-boxes  for  paper-machines,  115 
-pan  for  lime,  28 
-pans  for  bleach  solution,  63 
pulp  in  the  engine,  77 
Montgolfier's  attempts  of  manufacturing  straw- 
paper,  257 
Monthly  payment  of  wages,  383 
Motive  power  of  paper-machines,  186 
Movement  of  the  pulp  in  the  engine,  36 

Naphtha,  used  in  gas-machines,  373 
Natrona  porous  alum,  90 
Nitrate  of  lead,  98 

Nitric  acid,  used  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  304 
Nugent  and  Coghlan's  bed-plates,  47 
Nugent's  pulp-propeller,  50 
Nutgalls,  100 

OaT-STRAW,  261 
Ochre,  yellow,  100 

Oil  feeder  for  beating  engine-shafts,  44 
Oil  for  lighting,  371 

-lamps,  372 
Old  paper,  246 


Orange,  chrome,  98 
mineral,  98 

red  gold  envelope  color,  102 
Orioli  Fredet  and  Matussiere's  patent,  304 
Oxygen  as  ozone,  59 
Ozone,  59 

Ozone  bleaching  process,  293 

Painting  pipes,  363 

Paper,  building,  332 
carrying-rolls,  149 
car-wheels,  331 

cutters,  cutting  across  the  web,  171 

dealers,  381 

for  paper  collars,  316 

for  roofing,  332 

from  cotton  waste,  322 

from  tobacco,  322 

history  of,  9 

in  endless  rolls,  185 

-machine,  cylinder,  196 

Harper's  improved,  201 
-machines,  114 

building  for,  194 

foundation  of,  193 

gearing  of,  188 

motive  power  of,  186 

size  and  speed  of,  192 

ventilators  for,  194 
-manufacture  by  hand,  11 
-mills,  conditions  of  success  of,  381 

cost  of  building  of,  380 

fire-proof,  376 

location  and  site  of,  377 

planning  of,  375 

power  required  for,  378 

statistics  of,  384 
parchment,  333 
-rolls  for  super-calenders,  218 
waste-,  246 
Papyrus,  9 

Parchment  paper,  333 

Patented  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  white 

paper  from  straw,  275 
Patent  grate-bars,  352  • 

pulping-engines,  103 
Pattern  boards,  329 

Payment  of  wages,  monthly  and  weekly,  383 
Pens  for  ruling-machines,  230 
Permanently  hard  water,  338 
Pernambuco  wood,  98 


INDEX. 


395 


Peroxide  of  manganese,  75 
Petroleum,  distillation  of,  371 

fire-test  of,  372 
Pink  color,  97  « 
Pipes,  connecting  with  steam-engines,  362 

covering  for,  363 

disposition  of,  362 

paint  for,  363 
Piston  pumps,  341 

Planing  apparatus  for  wooden  press-rolls,  295 
Planning  paper-mills,  375 
Plate-calenders,  217 

-screens,  117 
Polishing  press-boards,  329 
Porous  alum,  90 
Posts  of  felt  and  paper,  12 
Pounding  rags,  11 

Power  consumed  by  beating-engines,  82 
of  steam-engines,  360 
of  steam-engines,  losses  of,  361 
of  turbines,  347 

lost  in  vertical  water-wheels,  345 

motive,  of  pajier-machines,  186 

required  for  paper-mills,  378 
Prescriptions  for  sizing,  86,  87 
Press-boards,  329 

-felts,  150 

-rolls  of  paper  machines,  145 

stamping-,  235 
Presses,  hydraulic- and  screw,  for  finishing,  232 

of  Fourdrinier  machines,  145 
Pressing  water  from  boards,  327 
Pressure  gauges  for  straw-boilers,  272 

of  steam  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  271 

-regulator  for  rotary  boilers,  31 
Prints,  246 

Prosperity  of  paper-mills,  381 
Prussian  blue,  preparation  of,  94 
Prussiate  of  potash,  94 
Pulleys,  balanced,  365 

turned  high  in  the  middle,  365 
Pulp-boxes  on  wheels,  367 

circulation  of,  in  engines,  36,  49 

-dressers,  disposition,  size,  &c.,  of,  125 
for  paper-machines,  117 

from  waste-paper,  253 

mixing  of,  in  the  engine,  77 

movement  of,  in  the  engine,  36 

-propeller,  Nugent's,  50 
Pumps,  341 

for  suction-boxes,  133 


Pumps,  stuff,  112 
Purchase  of  rags,  13 

of  straw,  259 
Purification  of  wash-water  by  alum,  341 
Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.'s  expanding  pulley,  190 

Quantity  of  wash-water  required,  340 
Quercitron  or  oak  bark,  100 

Races  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  344 
Railroad  duster,  23 
Rag-boilers,  26 

-catcher  for  waste-paper,  252 

-cutters,  18 

-dusters,  21 

thrasher,  14 
Rags,  cutting  by  hand,  16 

diflference  of,  according  to  their  origin,  14 

humidity  of,  13 

purchase  of,  13 

sorting  of,  16 

spontaneous  combustion  of,  17 

superiority  of,  10 
Receipts  for  coloring,  101 

for  sizing,  86,  87 
Receiver  for  bleach-solution,  65 
Recovery  of  soda  by  evaporation,  302 
Red,  aniline,  97 

from  Brazil  wood,  98 

pink  or  cochineal,  97 

Venetian,  99 
Reels,  166 

Refiners  for  the  manufacture  of  wood-pulp,  307 
Regulating-box  for  the  pajjer-machine,  115 
Regulator  for  steam  pressure  in  rag-boilers,  31 

for  the  steam  pressure  in  the  dryers,  157 
Reservoirs  for  wash-water,  336,  339 
Resin,  quality  of,  89 
Resin-soap,  84 
Reversed  screens,  124 
Revolving  reels,  167 

screens,  123 
Rocker  for  beating-engines,  45 
Rocking  motion  of  doctors,  148 
Rolls  of  engines,  38 
Roofing-paper,  332 
Ropes,  boiling  and  cutting  of,  325 

tarred,  325 
Rotaries  for  bleaching  straw-pulji,  292 
Rotary  boilers,  26 

construction  of,  32 


396 


INDEX. 


Rotary  boilers,  explosions  of,  29 

for  the  digestion  of  straw,  268,  271 
location  of,  34 

pumps,  341 
Rotten  straw,  260 
Rotting  process,  11 
Rubber  belts,  364 

-covered  couch-rolls,  131 

-covered  press-rolls,  148 
Ruling  machines,  228 

Russell  &  Sons'  improved  suction-box  head,  134 
Russell's  steam-pressure  regulator,  157 
Rye  straw,  261 

Safety-boilers,  357 

Salt,  common,  for  the  production  of  chlorine 
gas,  76 

in  wash-water,  common,  337 
Sand-tables  for  paper-machines,  116 

-traps  of  engines,  39 
Save-all  beneath  the  wire-cloth,  136 
Scanlen,  Stine  &  Ross's  patent,  330 
Scoops  in  drying-cylinders,  154 
Screenings  of  straw-pulp  from  the  wet-machine,  270 
Screens,  disposition,  size,  and  management  of,  125 

for  paper-machines,  117 
Screw  presses  for  finishing  paper,  232 
Scrolls  for  animal  size,  204 
Self-acting  guide-rolls  for  dryer-felts,  160 

-actors  for  engine-rolls,  81 
Set-screws,  fastening  pulleys  with,  365 
Settling-ponds  for  wash-water,  336 
Shafts,  365 

of  engine-rolls,  38 
Shake-posts  for  Fourdriuier  wires,  138 
Shaking  motion  of  Fourdrinier  wires,  137 
Shavings  of  paper,  246 
Sheet  super-calenders,  217 
Sheldon's  patent  for  parchment  paper,  334 
Shrinking  of  paper  on  the  dryers,  156 
Silk  threads,  their  application  to  the  paper  money 

of  the  United  States,  313 
Site  of  paper-mills,  378 
Size  of  beating-engines,  55 

of  paper-machines,  192 

of  pulleys  and  cogwheels,  calculation  of,  367 
Sizing,  82 

comparison  of  different  systems  of,  215 

in  the  engine,  83 

in  the  web,  203 
Sliding  head  of  suction-boxes,  Russell's,  134 


Slitters,  170 
Smoke,  349,  351 

consumption  of,  352 

-stacks  for  steam-boilers,  349 
Soda  ash,  263 

quantity  of,  required  for  the  digestion  of 
straw,  274 

used  for  the  preparation  of  size,  84 
Soda,  action  of,  in  boiling  rags,  27 

for  boiling  waste  paper,  251 

manufacture  of,  262 
Solution  of  bleaching-powders,  62,  66 

of  caustic  soda,  preparation  of,  264 

of  resin,  84 
Sorting  rags,  16 

waste  paper,  247 
Sour  bleaching,  73 
Sources  of  wash-water,  338 
Spanish  grass,  297 

Specific  gravity  of  sulphuric  acid,  68 
Speed  of  beating-engines,  43 

of  belts,  364 

of  overshot  wheels,  345 

of  paper-machines,  192 

of  paper-machines,  change  of,  189 
Speeds  of  pulleys  and  wheels,  calculation  of,  367 
Splinter-moulds  for  wood-pulp,  307 
Spontaneous  combustion  of  rags,  17 
Spots  of  iron  in  paper,  their  origin,  79 
Spread-rolls  for  felts,  150 
Springs  of  water,  339 
Spurs  of  surface-sized  pajier,  211 
Stamping-press,  235 
Stamping  rags,  11 
Starch,  241 

used  in  testing  for  chlorine,  79 

use  of,  in  sizing,  87 
Statistics,  384 

of  pajier-mills  in  all  countries,  386 

of  paper-mills  in  the  United  States,  385 

of  the  capital  employed  in  paper-mills,  387 

of  the  consumption  of  2>aper,  386 

of  the  labor  employed,  387 

of  the  raw  materials  used,  387 
Steam,  admission  of,  to  and  escape  from  the 
dryers,  154,  156,  187 

-boilers,  construction  of,  352 
explosions  of,  354 
feeding  of,  353 
grate  surface  of,  350 
German  law  regulating,  355 


INDEX. 


397 


Steam-boilers,  heating  surface  of,  348 
incrustations  of,  354 
of  steel,  353 
safety,  357 
test  of,  352 
-engines,  358 

for  paper-machines,  187 
losses  of  power  of,  361 
power  of,  360 

working  together  with  water-power,  362 
■  '  -heater  for  boards,  327 
-heating  pipes,  370 

-pipes,  connecting  with  steam-engines,  362 
of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  362 

-power  comjiared  with  water-power,  379 

-pressure  for  the  digestion  of  straw,  271 
regulator  for  the  dryers,  157 

-pumps  for  feeding  boilers,  354 

-traps,  363 

Steaming  dried  paper  on  the  machine,  165 

of  sheets  on  leaving  the  supei'-calenders,  222 
Steel  boilers,  353 
Stop-cutter,  177,  180 
Storage  of  straw,  259 
Stoves,  370 

Strainers,  disposition,  size,  &c.,  of,  125 

for  paper-machines,  117 
Straw,  255 

-boards,  330 

lined  on  the  machine,  331 

-boiler,  Dixon's,  275 

-boilers,  construction  of,  275 

composition  of,  256 

-fibre,  243 

-fibres,  quality  and  use  of,  295 

importance  of,  for  paper-making,  296 

-paper,  construction  of  the  paper-machine  for 
the  making  of,  293 

-pulp,  beating  of,  293 

reduction  of  the  bulk  of,  272 

Avrapping-paper,  255 

yield  of  white  paper  from,  274 
Strength  and  test  of  bleaching-powders,  60 

of  bleach  solutions,  65 
surface-sized  paper,  83 
Stretcher  for  coucher-jackets,  130 
Stretch-roll  for  Fourdrinier  wires,  137 

-rolls  for  felts,  150 
String-catcher  for  waste  paper,  262 
Stufi'-catchers,  187 

-chest.  111 


Stuff-pump,  111 

Substitutes  for  rags,  237 

Success  of  paper-mills,  conditions  of,  381 

Suction-boxes,  132 

-pipes  for  pumps,  341 
-strainers,  123 
Sugar  of  lead,  98 

used  for  solutions  of  resin,  85 
Sulphate  of  alumina  in  alum,  89 

of  potash  in  alum,  89 
Sulphide  of  sodium  for  the  digestion  of  straw, 

wood,  &c.,  305 
Sulphuric  acid,  66 

action  of,  on  bleach  solution,  60 
action  of,  upon  cellulose,  333 
used  for  boiled  straw,  269 
Super-calenders  for  endless  paper,  223 

for  sheets,  217 
Superheated  steam  for  boiling  straw,  271 
Surface  and  engine-sizing,  comparison  of,  82 
-sized  paper,  drying  in  the  web  of,  212 

strength  of,  83 
-sizing,  203 

-speed  of  overshot  wheels,  345 
Syphon  pipe  for  bleach  solution,  65 
washers  for  beating-engines,  52 

Table  of  the  mean  pressure  for  different 

grades  of  expansion,  360 
Tallow  for  engine-sizing,  89 
Tarred  ropes,  325 
Tea  color,  102 
Tension  of  belts,  364 

Test  and  strength  of  bleaching  powders,  60 
Testing  for  chlorine  in  the  beaters,  79 

resin-soap,  86 

soda,  264 
Test  of  steam-boilers,  352 
Thiery's  wire-guide,  142 
Thrashing  rags,  14 

Tieman's  patent  for  the  use  of  lime  and  alum,  93 
Tiles,  perforated,  for  drainer-bottoms,  72 
Tinted  paper,  102 
Tissue-paper,  manufacture  of,  315 
Tobacco-paper,  322 

Transfer  of  paper  from  the  machine  to  the  web 

super-calenders,  222 
Transportation  from  and  to  mills,  cost  of,  379 

of  pulp  and  materials  in  the  mill,  367 
Tribbles  for  drying  surface-sized  paper,  211 
Tricellulose,  242 


398 


INDEX. 


U 


Trimming-knife,  232 

paper  on  the  macliine,  170 
Trough  below  the  presses  of  paper-machines,  151 
Trucks  for  the  transportation  of  pulp,  &c.,  367 
Tube-rolls  supporting  the  wire-cloth,  129 
Tubes  used  for  steam-boilers,  357 
Tubs  for  boiling  rags,  25 

waste-paper,  249 

of  engines,  39 
Tunicsin,  241 
Turbines,  345 

Turner's  Falls  water-power,  344 

Wood-pulp  Co.'s  works,  307 

LMIC  acid,  242 
Ultramarine,  96 

Utilization  of  escaped  steam,  359 

Vats  of  engines,  39 
Vegetable  size,  preparation  of,  84 
Venetian  red,  99 
Ventilation  of  paper-mills,  370 
Ventilators  for  drying-rooms,  328 

for  jiaj^er-machines,  194 
Violet  from  logwood,  98 
Vitriol,  66 

Voelter's  system  of  preparing  wood-pulp,  306 
Vomiting  tubs  for  boiling  waste-paper,  249 

Wages,  monthly  and  weekly  payments  of,  383 
Wash-box  for  the  upper  wet-felt  on  straw-board 

machines,  330 
Washer,  Fox's,  54 

Hammond's,  52 
Washers,  efficiency  of,  54 

for  felts,  151 
Washing  boiled  waste-paper,  252 

boiled  straw,  269,  291 

-cylinders  for  beating-engines,  51 

-engines,  49 

out  chlorine  in  the  beaters,  78 
rags  after  boiling,  35 
rags  before  boiling,  25 
wood  half-stuff,  301 
Wash-water,  filtering  of,  336 

importance  of,  335 

purification  of,  by  alum,  340 

required  quantity  of,  340 

reservoirs  for,  339 

sources  of,  338 
Waste  bleach-liquor,  72 

bleach  solution  from  straw,  291 


Waste  from  cutting  and  dusting,  24 
Waste-paper,  246 

Water-marks  in  bank-note  paper,  313 
made  with  the  dandy-roll,  136 
pipes,  cast-iron  and  wrought-iron,  362 

for  paper-machines,  136 
power,  342 

compared  with  steam-power,  379 
dams  for,  343 
depreciation  of,  378 
wheels,  344  '  • 

Wax,  sizing  with,  91 
Web  super-calenders,  223 
Weeds  in  straw,  259 
Weekly  payment  of  wages,  383 
Weight  of  hogsheads  of  bleaching-powders,  62 
Wells,  artesian,  339 

for  wash-water,  339 
Wet-felt  for  straw-boards,  upper,  330 
-felts,  150 

-machine  as  drainer,  74 

for  boiled  straw,  270 

for  wood  half-stuff,  302 
straw,  purchase  of,  260 
Wheat  straw,  261 

Wheeler's,  Seth,  patent  for  endless  wrapping- 
paper,  185 
White  paper,  93 
Width  of  dryers,  161 
Wire-cloth  and  its  attachments,  128 

-cloths,  management  of,  143 

-guides,  142 
Wood  boiler,  Dixon's,  275 

-fibre,  243 

-fibres,  yield  and  length  of,  303 
manufacture  of  paper  from,  300 
-pulp,  fibres  of  mechanically-prepared,  309 
mechanically-prepared,  306 
weight  of  mechanically-prepared,  308 
Wooden  press-rolls  for  straw-paper,  294 
Working  capital  for  paper-mills,  380 
Wrapping-paper  from  straw,  255 
Wrinkles  of  dryer-felts,  161 

Yellow,  chrome,  98 

gold,  envelope  color,  101 
ochre,  100 

straw  wrapping-paper,  255 
Yield  of  fibres  from  wood,  303 

white  paper  from  straw,  274 

Zigzag  plates,  45 


CHINA  CLAY, 


English  and  American. 


SELESIAN  WHITE. 


RED,  YELLOW  and 

MOTTLED  CLAYS, 


For  Common  Papers. 


TERRA  ALBA. 


BLEACH'G 

POWDER, 


SODA 


ASH, 


Ordinary  48  per  ct.  and 
Purified  high  test. 


STARCH. 

CAUSTIC 

SODA. 

ALUM, 

AMMONIA, 
POTASH,  and 
CONCENTRATED. 

ANTI- 
CHLORINE. 


^CHEU 


HILADELPHIA 


OLORING 


High  Test 

a  Specialty. 


SAL  SODA, 

ROSINS, 

"No.  1,"  &  "Extra." 

ANILINE 

COLORS, 

All  Shades. 

PASTE 

COLORS, 

All  Shades. 

COPPERAS. 


CARMINE, 


Strictly  Pure  Scarlet  Tint. 


OCHRES. 


CHROMES. 


ULTRAMARINE  BLUE. 

VENETIAN  RED. 

ROSE  PINK. 

SPANISH  BROWN 


TUBULOUS  SAFliTY  BOILER 


Over  12,000  Horse-Power  in  Use. 


Ko  Rubber  Washers  nor  Red 
Lead  Patty, 


WROUGHT-IRON  LAP-WELDED 
BOILER  TUBES, 

Put  togetlier  with  IRON  TO  IRON  JOINTS, 
tested  and  made  ti^ht  at  500  pounds  hydrostatic 
pressure,  and  wttliout  any  interposing  perishable 
substances. 


Horizontal  Steam  and  Water  Drnnis,  of  ample  capacity,  afford  about  the  same  water  and  steam  room  as  in  Tubular 

Boilers,  and  far  beyond  any  other  boiler  of  this  class.  These  Drums  also  furnish  large  disengaging  surface,  and  with  free  circulation  secure  dry  steam, 
steady  pressure,  and  water  line  These  features  are  especially  valuable  in  Paper  Mills,  Sugar  Refineries,  &c.  Perfect  combustion  and  well-arranged  heat- 
ing surface  secure  economy  of  fuel 

REFERENCES. 


Jessup  &  Moore,  Paper  Manufacturers,  Augustine  Mills,  Wilmington.  Del., 

4  boilers,  200  horse-power. 
The  Singer  Manufacturing  Co.-;  Sewing  Machines,  New  York, 

21  boilers,  1560  horse-power. 
G.  De  Witt,  Bro.  k  Co.,  Fourdrinier  Wires,  Belleville,  N.  .J.,  7.t  horse-power. 
Philadelphia  Ledger  Paper  Mills,  Elkton,  Md.,  2  boilers,  100  horse-power. 
Decastro  &  Donner  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  New  York, 

12  boilers,  900  horse-power. 
Havemeyers  &  Elder.  Sugar  Refiners,  New  York,  8  boilers,  600  horse-power. 
S.  Y.  Beach,  Paper  Mannfactui-er,  Seymour,  Conn.,  60  hoi'se-power. 

Bridgewater  Paper  Co.,  Chester,  Pa.,  3  boilers,  120  horse-power. 

Antietam  Paper  Co.,  Antietam,  Md.,  60  horse-power. 

Dushaiie  k  Ensor.  Paper  Mills,  Woodbine,  Md.,  2  boilers,  110  horse-power. 
Matthiessen  &  Wiechers  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  New  Y'ork, 

4  boilers,  300  horse-power. 
Havemeyer  Bros.  &  Co.,  Sugar  Refiners,  N.  Y.,  6  boilers,  4.50  horse-power. 
Jonathan  Tyson,  Paper  Mills,  Modeville,  Pa  ,  50  horse-power. 


David  Trainer  &  Sons,  Cotton  Mills,  Linwood,  Pa.,  7  boilers,  425  horse-power. 
Grant  Locomotive  Works,  Paterson,  N.  J.,  2  boilers,  1.50  horse-power. 

Harrison  Havemeyer  &  Co.,  Sugar  Refiners,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 

8  boilers,  600  horse-power. 
Gambrill,  Sons  &  Co.,  Cotton  Duck,  Woodbury,  Md., 

2  boilers,  150  horse-power. 
Wm.  E.  Hooper  &  Sons,  Cotton  Mills,  Woodbury.  Md., 

5  boilers,  325  horse-power. 
Cape  Fear  Fibre  Co.,  Wilmington,  N.  C,  40  horse-power. 

Calvert  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md-,  22  boilers,  1100  horse-power. 
Belcher  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  St  Louis,  Mo.,  4  boilers,  300  horse-power. 
Wahl  Brothers,  Glue  and  Oil  Manufacturers,  Chicago.  III., 

4  boilers,  300  horse^power. 
Studebaker  Manufacturing  Co.,  Wagons,  South  Bend,  Ind  , 

4  boilers,  300  horse-power. 
Sutro  Tunnel  Co.,  Sutro,  Nevada,  2  boilers,  100  horse-power. 

Lima  &  Orya  Railway  Co.,  Calao,  Peru,  S.  Am.,    3  boilers,  115  horse-power. 


Anei  Several  Thouswd  Horss-Powor  of  Boilers  and  Engines,  from  5  up  to  600  horse-power,  in  all  parts  of  tlie  country. 

We  also  build  all  sizes  of  Vertical  and  Horizontal  Engines.   Send  for  Circular  and  information. 

BABCOCK  &  WILCOX,  No.  30  Courtlandt  St.,  New  York. 


HUTCHINSON'S  PATENT  LOCK  GRATE  BARS. 

Designed  and  proportioned  to  combine  all  the  advantages  of  ample  air 
space,  strength,  treedom  from  warping,  ease  of  putting  in  and  taking 
out  of  furnace,  retaining  a  simple  form  without  complication.  These 
features,  together  with  a  good  quality  of  iron  (all  essential  in  the  dura- 
bility of  any  bar),  will  commend  them  to  the  favorable  notice  of  parties 
interested.  They  are  kept  in  their  relative  position  to  each  other  and 
prevented  from  warpina  by  oblique  projections  or  lugs  cast  on  either  side 
of  each  bar,  so  arran  t^ed  that  tlio-^e  on  one  bar  shall  ovei  lap  the  lugs  on  the 
one  next  to  it.  thus  locking  all  together  when  placed  in  the  furnace.  This 
most  elfectually  prevents  warping  or  rising  one  above  the  other,  always 
retaining  an  even  level  surface  on  top.  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the 
bars  sliding  endwise.  Provision  is  made  for  free  expansion  without 
cramping  the  bars. 


REFERENCES. —Singer  Sewing  Machine  Co  ,  2.3  boilers;  Havemeyers  &  Elder,  15  boilers:  Matthiesson  &  Wiechers,  4  boilers;  Tooker  &  Sears, 
and  other  tfugar  Refineries,  New  York;  Harway  Chemical  Works,  Custom  House,  Stock  Exchange,  Tiffany  &  Co..  Shaw  k  Laimbeer  Elevators,  New  York  ; 
American  Screw  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  28  boilers;  Weed  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  5  boilers;  Pratt  &  Wliitney,  Machinists,  3  boilers;  Hartford  Carpet  Co., 
Hartford,  Conn. :  Scovill  Manufacturing  Co..  Waterbury,  Conn. ;  New  England  Co.,  New  Haven.  Conn.;  American  Steam  Safe  Co..  Boston,  Mass. ;  Wahl 
Bros.,  Glue  Manufacturers,  Chicago,  III.,  4  boilers;  Belcher  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  4  boilers,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  and  many  others  in  abpve  towns  and  elsewhere. 

For  further  information,  please  address 

R.  A.  HUTCHINSON,  No.  30  Courtlandt  St.,  New  York. 


OTIS  BROTHERS  ^  CO., 

Patentees  and  Sole  Mannfaotnrers  of  the  Celelirated 

PATENT  SAFETY  ELEVATORS 

AND  OTHER 

SAFETY  HOISTING  MACHINERY. 

Special  Adaptations  for  Paper  Mills,  Manufactories,  Warehouses,  Stores,  Hotels,  Public 
■ '     ■  Buildings,  Blast  Furnaces,  Mines,  ^c. 

OFFICE,  348  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 

(400) 


BULKLEY,  DUNTON  &  CO. 


"Excelsior"  Felts,  Felting  &  Jacketing 


These  Felts  are  guaranteed  to  he  fully  equal  to  the  best  im- 
ported, in  every  respect,  and  are  sold,  at  a  much  lower  price.  They 
are  used  by  a  large  number  of  manufacturers  throughout  different 
sections  of  the  country,  ivith  PERFECT  SUCCESS.  A  trial  willfully 
establish  their  claim  for  merit,  and  confirm  the  high  repute  they 
have  enjoyed  for  some  years  past. 


CANVAS  DRYER  FELTING, 


OF  EXTRA  HEAVY  CANVAS. 

We  particularly  commend  this  article  to  Faper-makers.  It 
is  the  very  best  and  heaviest  ever  put  into  Dryer  Felts. 

AND 

All  Other  Kinds  of  Supplies  Reijuired  by  Paper  Manufacturers. 


No.  74  John  Street, 


p.  O.  BOX  1784. 


New  York, 


SOLICIT  ATTENTION  TO  THEIK 


ALSO, 


BULKLEY,  DuNTON  &  Co 


PAPEIt  WABEHOUSB. 


NEW  YOBK. 

( ^01 ) 


DEPOT  FOR  PAPER-MAKERS'  SUPPLIES. 

Brautigam  &  Watson, 

IMPORTERS  of  PAPER-MAKERS'  STOCK  &  MATERIALS. 

AGENTS  FOR 

Whitehead's  Feltings, 

Pochin's  Patent  Aluminous  Cake, 

Curtius'  Ultramarine. 

The  above  well-known  and  popular  "  Specialties  "  are  admitted  to  be  the  best  and  cheapest  !iHic\es  for  their 
respective  purposes,  and  have  stood  the  test  of  many  years'  use. 

Brautigam  &  Watson  are  very  largely  identified  with  the  trade  in  BLEACHING  POWDER,  SODA  ASH,  and 
Paper-makors'  Chemicals  generally.    Also  dealers  in  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  RAGS. 

J8^^  Ecerythi7ig  needed  in  a  paper-mill  supplied  at  lowest  market  rates. 

I^os.  63  6c  65  Beekman  St.^  Iffew  York. 

J.  H.  TIEMANN  &  CO., 

NEW  YORK, 

FINE  ^Q)IMMM, 

AWiMME  BTEM,j 

Wit  TMAMAMIWE^,j 

Coloring  Materials  for  Paper  a  Specialty. 


Chemicals  for  Paper-Makers, 

and  more  especially  Bleaching  Powders,  should  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible.    They  should  therefore  be 
purchased  to  arrive  and  thus  received  directly  from  ship-board. 


GEO.  F.  GANTZ  &  CO., 

176  DUANE  STBEET,  NEW  YORK, 

IMPORTERS  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF  PAPER-MAKERS'  CHEMICALS 

ESTABLISHED  1849. 


Soda  Ash, 

Wilson's,  Johnson's,  Hutchinson'.s,  Kurtz'.s.  Furlong's,  Alhusen's,  Jarrow's,  Lee's,  and  other  welUknown  brands. 

Bleaching  Powders, 

Johnson's,  Golding's,  Sullivan's,  &c.    Fresh — high  test. 

Sal  Soda, 

Only  the  best  Newcastle  makes. 

Hyposulphite  of  Soda,  or  Atitichlorine. 

The  best  quality  GERMAN— Superior  to  all  others. 


ALUM,  YELLOW  OCHRE,  CHIITA  CLAV, 

ROSIN,  BICHROMATE  OF  POTASH,       TERRA  ALBA, 

BORAX,  VENETIAN  RED,  COPPERAS. 

We  will  be  happy  to  furnish,  on  applicatioii,  prices  of  all  kinds  of  chemicals  to  aily  paper-maker  of  good 
standing.    PRICES  ALWAYS  LOW  TO  CASH  BUTERS. 

OflBce,  176  Duane  Street,  New  York. 

(  403  )       ■  51 


Brokers  in  Ensflish  Chemicals, 


AGENTS  FOR  GASKELL,  DEACON  &  CO. 'S- BLEACHING  POWDERS, 


AND  OTHER  CHEMICALS. 


32  North  Front  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

O.  S.  JANNEY  &  CO., 

Nos.  117  CHESTNUT  ST.,    and    Nos.  30  &  32  LETITIA  ST., 

PHILADELPHIA,  PA., 

Importers  of  Dye-Stuffs,  Soda  Ash  &  Bleaching  Powders 

Agents  for  EDWARD  WILSON  &  CO.,  Manchester,  England. 

WATERVILLE  DYE-WOOD  MILLS  AND  EXTEAOT  WORKS. 


No.  22  N.  Front  Street,  Philadelphia, 


IMPORTERS,  MANUFACTURERS,  AND  DEALERS  IN 


CHEMICALS  AND  DYE-STUFFS 

For  Paper  Mills  and  Cotton  and  Woollen  Manufacturers. 


BLEAOHINa  POWDERS, 
OAUSTIO  SODA, 
ALUM  (Lump  and  Ground), 
BIOHKOMATE  OP  POTASH, 
PRUSSIATE  OF  POTASH, 


COPPERAS, 
CHINA  CLAYS, 
YELLOW  OCHRE, 
SODA  ASH, 
SAL  SODA, 


ULTRAMARINE, 
ANILINE  COLORS, 
PARIS  WHITE, 
NITRATE  OF  LEAD, 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


Manufacturers  of  DYE-WOODS  of  all  kinds,  and  of  "Waterville"  EXTRACT  OP  LOGWOOD,  for 

Paper-makers'  and  Dyers'  uses — the  best  and  purest  in  the  market. 
(  404  ) 


BLEACHING  POWDERS  OF  ALL  PRIME  BRANDS. 

Hard  Wood  Casks.— Condition  and  Quality  in  all  Cases  Guaranteed. 


ESTABLISHED  A.D.  1820. 


R  SEEGER  &  CO., 


IMPOETEES  OF  AND  DEALEES  IN 


AND 


No.  41  North  Front  Street, 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA., 


HAVE  CONSTANTLY  IN  STORE  AND  TO  ARRIVE 


Bleaching  Powders, 

Deacon's,  Sullivan's,  Johnson's,  Crossfield's. 

Caustic  Soda  Ash, 

High  Test. 

Refined  Carbonated  Soda  Ash, 

54  to  56  per  cent.        For  Sizing. 

Alum,  Lump  and  Ground, 


Copperas, 
Rosins, 


For  all  Grades  of  Papers. 


Clays— English  China, 
So.  Car.  do. 
Fine  White, 
Colored. 

Carmine, 

Absolutely  pure— Of  extra  coloring  strength. 

Ultramarine  Blue, 

Alum  proof. 

English  Venetian  Red. 


Low  Freights  Contracted  and  Orders  Promptly  Executed 


(  405) 


WILLIAM   M.  HABIRSHAW, 

Chemical  Engineer  and  Analytical  Chemist, 

ANALYST  TO  THE  CHEMICAL  TRADE  OP  NEW  YORK, 

36  New  St.,  New  York  City. 
SAMPLES  OF  ASH,  BLEACH,  ETC.,  ANALYZED. 

W.  H.  SCHIEFFELIN  &  CO., 

Importers  &  Jobbers  of  Drugs^ 

Red  Chalk,  Paper-makers'  Chemicals, 

Test  Re-agents,  Ultramarine  Blue,  Aniline  Dyes, 

Orange  Mineral,  Vermilion,  &c.,  &c., 

170  &  172  WILLIAM  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 

For  Paper-Makers'  Use. 

Ti^  FEi:i:  FROM  IROJV  AJ^'D  FROM  EXCESS  OF  ACID. 

2  lbs.  of  it  will  size  as  much  paper  as  3  lbs.  of  Potash 
or  Ammonia  Alum. 


AGENTS. 

MOREY  ^  CO.,  BOSTON. 
PARS0:N'S  ^  PETIT,     ------   MEW  YORK. 

CLIFFORD  PEMBERTOJ^,  General  Agt.,  PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

(  406  ) 


C.  B.  HEWITT  &  BRO., 

PAPER,   GLUE,  &e. 

Samples  Solicited  from  Manufacturers. 

BEEKMAN  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


J.  B.  AY  RES, 

AND 

PAPER  MANUFACTURERS'  SUPPLIES, 
No.  25  Beekman  Street, 

NEW  YOKK. 
SOLE  AGENT  FOR  BAKER'S  PATENT  DRYER  FELTS. 


ESTABLISHED  IN  1847. 


MELVIN  HARD  &  SON, 

Wholesale  Paper  Warehouse, 

44  BEEKMAN  ST.,  NEW  YOEK. 

Having  made  arrangemonts  with  Jlcllurray  for  the  sale  of  his 
celebrated  FOURDRINIKR  WIRES,  Iviiown  by  the  best  paper- 
makers  in  America  to  be  superior  to  ani/  erer  made,  we  are  deter- 
mined that  all  the  manufacturers  shall  have  the  benefit  of  them, 
and  at  as  low  a  price,  as  the  commoner  ones  are  sold  at  in  the 
market. 

We  also  have  constantly  on  hand  fresh  (High  Test  only)  Bleach- 
ing Powders,  Alum,  Soda  Ash,  Ultramarine,  Whitehead's  Felting, 
Canvas  Dryer  Felting,  Ariierican  Felts.  Rags  of  all  descriptions. 

Large  discounts  on  India  Rubber  and  Leather  Belting. 


E.  W.  TAYLOR  &  CO., 


IMPORTERS  OF  FOREIGN 


AND  PACKERS  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF 

DOMESTIC  PAPER  STOCK, 

BLEACHING  POWDERS,  SODA  ASH, 

AND  ALL  PAPER-MAKERS'  SUPPLIES, 

COIVSTAIHTLY  OK  HAJVD  IRT  LOTS  AS  WAKTED. 

White  and  Colored  Shavings,  Prints, 

Book  Stock,  Pure  Manillas, 

Imperfections,  Manilla  and  Hemp  Rope, 

Gunny  and  Burlap  Bagging. 


iSS  Wmtm  Btwmi 


E.  W.  TAYLOR, 
A.  W.  STURGKS. 


{NEAR  PECK  SLIP,) 


NEW  YORK. 

(  407  ) 


J.  HARTMAN, 

PAPER  STOCK  DEALER. 


WHITE  SHAVINGS,  IMPERFECTIONS,  AND  PAPERS 
OF  ALL  KINDS, 

PUT  UP  FOR  PAPER  MANUFACTURERS. 


WAREHOUSE, 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


SHULER  &  BENNINGHOFEN, 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


COARSE  &  Fl  CYLINDER  FELTS, 

FOURDRINIER  FELTS, 

PRESS  FELTS  and  JACKETS, 

Hamilton,  Ohio. 


PAPER-MAKERS'  SUPPLIES  AND  CHEMICALS, 

iN'o.  152  Worth  Street,  corner  Mission  Place,  New  York. 

ALUM,  BLEACHING  POWDER,  CLAY,  COLORING  MATERIALS,  SODA  ASH,  ROSIN, 

JUTE  BUTTS,  RAGS  (all  kinds),  FELTS. 

JOS  LOTS  OF  PAPER  ALWAYS  WANTED. 


T.  SEYMOUR  SCOTT 
&  BEO., 


WHOLESALE  PAPER  WAREHOUSE, 

Particular  attention  given  to  Consignments. 


520  Commerce  Street, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


Magargee  Bros., 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


COLORED,  FINE  GLAZED,  TINTED, 
CHEOMO,  PLATE,  MAP,  BOOK, 

MANILLA,  AND  NEWS  PAPERS, 

Jittb  firmer  Jakm'  Su^^IifS  ienerallg, 

No.  20  SOUTH  SIXTH  STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


HARDING'S  PATENT 

SOFT-RURRER-COVERED  ROLLS. 

By  covering  the  rolls  which  carry  the  wire-cloth — 
especially  thecouchers — with  jackets  or  surfaces  of  soft 
vulcanized  rubber,  the  friction  is  considerably  reduced, 
and  wires  and  felts  are  thus  saved  to  a  very  large  extent. 
They  are  already  introduced  in  ten  large  mills,  and 
the  proprietor  of  one  of  the  largest  straw  board  mills, 
states,  that  since  their  introduction  not  only  less  wires 
were  required,  but  tliat  three  felts  would  last  as  long  as 
four  did  formerly.    For  particulars  and  prices,  address 

WILLIAM  W.  HARDING, 

Publisher  of  the  Inquirer,  Philadelphia. 


IMPROVED  BOXES  FOR  SETTING  BED  PLATES. 

QUICK  ADJUSTMENT.      NO  VIBKATION.     SAVING  OF  KNIVES. 


SEE  PAGE  326. 


Apply  for  particulars  to 


Factory,  Jersey  City  Heights. 
(408) 


W.  O.  DAVEY  &  SONS, 

Manufacturers  of  Binders,  Trunk,  and  Box  Boards, 

117  WALL  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


SELLERS  BROTHERS, 

J^o.  623  MARKET  STREET,  PHILADELPHIA, 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 

IRON,  BRASS,  AND  COPPER  WIRE  CLOTH, 

AND  DKALEHS  IN 

PAPER   IKEIIjiIm  supplies, 

GUM SSScKBLs. Cyliiifters  and  Dandy  Rolls  Co?ered. 


FOURDRINIER  WIRES  OUR  SPECIALTY, 

CONSTANTLY    ON    HAND    AND    MADE    TO  ORDER. 


MANUFACTUREKS  OF  EVEEY  DESCRIPTION  OF  BRASS  WIRE  CLOTH. 

Our  Wm.  F.  Kemp,  late  foreman  of  Sellers  Brothers'  Foiirdrinier  Wire  Department,  gives  his  constant  personal 
attention  to  the  execution  of  all  orders. 

C7LI1TDEBS  A^D  DAKD7  BOLLS  C07EBED  IS  THE  BEST  MAK^EB.  SUSTEB,  SCBEEIT,  AKD  WASHES  WIBE  FDBNISHED. 

KEYSTONE  WIRE  WORK8,1539  RaceSM,  PHILADELPHIA. 

G.  DE  WITT,  BRO.  &  CO., 

MANUFACTI'RERS  OF 

PAPER-MAKERS'  MATERIALS, 

FOURDRINIER  WIRES,  CYLINDER  COVERS, 

WIRE   CLOTH    OF   EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 

Dandy  Rolls  Made  and  Lettered  to  order,  Making  Cylinders, 

Cotton  Duck  Dryer  Felts,  English  and  American  Woollen  Felts,  &c-,  &c. 


OFFICES :  ^        31nrket  Street,  Philaflelphia. 

8®"  Send  for  Catalogue.  \  00  JoUu  Street,  NeW  Yovlt. 

These  Screens  will  wear  three  or  four  times  as  long  as  the  best 
brass  Screens  ;  wear  smoother  and  more  uniformly  ;  tahe  through 
the  jjulp  m.ore  freely,  and  make  less  strings. 


PARSOJVS      WIJVCHESTER,  South  Windham,  Conn. 

(  409  ) 


LOUIS  LANG  &  SON, 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


BRASS,  IRON.  Al  COFFER  WIRE-CLOTI, 

REPRESENTED  BY 

MARIUS  LANG  &  CO, 
p.  o.  BOX  2962.  63  Bleecker  Street,  New  York. 


phize  medals 

From  the  Exhibitions  of 

LONDON,  1851. 
PARIS,  1855. 
CARLSRUHB,  1861. 
LONDON,  1862. 
STETTIN,  1865. 
PARIS,  1867. 


From  800  to  1000  hands  and  104  looms  are 
constantly  employed  by  this  firm.,  princijmlly  in  the 
manufacture  of  Fourdrinier  Wires;  and  the  paper- 
makers  throughout  Europe  are  referred  to  for  the 
superiority  and  uniformity  of  their  products. 


ESTABLISHED  1828. 

FACTORIES 

AT 

Schlestadt  (Alsace). 
Saiiite-Marie  (Alsace) 
Kehl  (Baden). 


The  Following  Different  Kinds  of  Wire-Cloth  are  made  for  Fourdrinier  Machines : 

PLAIN  WIRE-CLOTH,  f,  om  No.  10  to  No.  100,  made  of  English  brass  wire,  containing  at  least  as  many 
threads  to  every  inch  of  the  length  and  width  as  their  number  indicates.  Our  No.  50  will  be  found  to  contain 
as  many  threads  as  No.  60  wire-cloth  sold  by  many  other  makers. —  Used  for  all  kinds  of  paper. 

DOUBLE  WARP  WIRE-CLOTH  y  the  warps  of  which  consist  of  two  threads  instead  of  single  threads, 
enabling  the  use  of  finer  wire,  and  giving  a  smooth,  beautifully  grained  surface  to  the  paper. —  Used  for  fine 
papers. 

MAILLON  OR  TRIPLE  WARP  WIRE-CLOTH,  the  warp  of  which  consists  of  three  threads 
instead  of  single  ones,  making  it  much  stronger  than  the  ordinary  kinds. —  Used  for  book,  news,  and  manilla 
paper.  ■  , 

THROWED  WIRE-CLOTH  ,  the  warp  of  which  consists  of  six  to  eight  threads  instead  of  one,  enabling 
it  to  withstand  a  very  strong  tension.  The  seams  of  these  wires  are  also  of  extraordinary  strength,  making 
them  the  most  durable  kind  known.  Their  manufacture  is  patented  in  France  by  our  house. —  Used  for  hatig- 
ing,  wrapping,  and  all  other  heavy  paper. 

ANNEALED  WIRE-CLOTHS.  Any  kind  of  wire  cloths  may  be  annealed  by  our  patented  process 
after  they  have  been  completely  finished,  they  become  thereby  more  rmiformly  malleable,  and  the  metal  is 
slightly  covered  with  an  oxide  which  protects  it  to  some  extent  against  the  influence  of  the  acids  contained  in 
the  pulp. — Recommended  for  all  7mmhers  from  No.  60  downwards 

WE  ALSO  MANUFACTURE 

'FOUR   MARCH   Wl  RE- CLOTH,  from  No.  20  to  No.  150,  for  sieves. 

COPPER  OR   ROSETTE   WIRE-CLOTH,  from  No.  10  to  No.  70,  for  cylinder  washers. 

DANDY   ROLLS,  of  any  size,  made  and  covered  to  order. 

COMPOSITION   DECKEL  STRAPS,  made  of  alternate  layers  of  cotton-cloth  and  rubber. 


"Write  for  samples  to 

P.  O.  BOX  2962. 

f  410  ) 


MARIUS  LANG  &  CO., 


03  Bleecker  Street,  New  Yorl  - 


McMURRAY  &  CO., 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 

Copper,  Brass,  and  Iron  Wire  Cloth. 


We  would  respectfully  call  the  attention  of  Paper-makers,  and  the  trade  in  general,  that  wc 
have  recently  enlarged  our  establishment,  and  our  long  practical  experience  and  constant  im- 
provements in  the  manufacturing  of  Fourdrinier  Machine  Wires,  wo  are  enabled  to  furnish  a 
superior  article  at  the  lowest  rates.    We  have  constantly  on  hand  a  large  assortment  of 

Fourdrinier  Machine  Wires^ 

CYLINDER  FACE  AND  BACKING  WIRES,  DUSTER  AND  WASHER  WIRES, 


WIRE  CLOTH,  FOR  TURPENTINE,  ROSIN,  MILK,  M  SUdAR  STRAINERS. 

EICE,  CORN,  AND  QUARTZ  MACHINE  WIRES,  WIRE  BOLTING  CLOTH  FOR  MILLERS,  BONNET  WIRE  FOR 
LOCOMOTIVES,  PAINTED  WIRE  WINDOW  SCREENS  FOR  OFFICES,  BANKS,  AND  PRIVATE 
DWELLINGS,  AND  ALL  KINDS  OF  USEFUL  AND  ORNAMENTAL  WIRE  WORK 

MADE  TO  ORDER. 


MANUFACTURERS  OF  McMURRAY'S  PATENT  WIRE  RAILING. 

Manufactory,  No.  102  N.  Second  Street,  and  101  N.  First  Street,  Brooklyn. 
WAREHOUSE,  105  FULTON  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


N.B. — Ot/linders  and  Dandy  Rolls  covered  and  repaired  at  short  notice. 

52 


(411  ) 


Automatic  Steam  Regulator, 

A  cut  and  description  of  which  can  he  found  on  page  158,  is 
a  valuable  and  perfect  arrangement  for  drying  paper  uniformly 

which  NO   PAPER-MAKER   CAN   AFFORD   TO   BE  WITHOUT. 

Please  send  for  circular  and  references. 


WE  ARE  ALSO  PROPEIETOES  AND  MANUPAOTURERS  OP  THE  PATENT 

Hard-Rubber  Suction  Box  Plates. 

This  plate  has  great  advantages  over  brass,  wearing  Five  Times  as  Long, 

and  presenting  a  smoother  surface  to  the  wire,  adds  twenty-five 
per  cent,  to  its  wear. 

ALSO, 

Improved  Adjustable  Head  &  Screw  for  Suction  Boxes. 

Cut  and  explanation  of  which  can  be  founds  on  page  135. 

ALSO, 

PACKING-BOX  FOR  DRYINa  CYLINDERS  &  ROTARY  BLEACH. 

The  best  thing  for  the  purpose,  does  not  get  out  of  order,  is 
easily  pached,  and  works  perfectly. 

Send  for  circulars,  and  full  particulars  for  all  of  the  above,  to 


Lawrence,  Mass. 

(  412  ) 


ESTABLISHED  1828. 


Smith,  Winchester  &  Co., 

SOUTH  WINDHAM,  CONNECTICUT, 


BUILDERS  OP 


AND 

Cylinder  Paper  Machines, 

RAG  ENGINES,  RAG  CUTTERS,  DUSTERS,  SUPER  CALENDERS,  STACK  CALENDERS, 
OF  BOTH  COMMON  AND  CHILLED  IRON,  ROTARY  BOILERS,  PUMPS, 

AND  ALL  OTHER  KINDS  OF  MACHIISIERY  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF  PAPER. 

SOLE  MANUFACTURERS  AND  AGENTS  FOR  THE  SALE  OF 

THE  JORDAN  t  EUSTICE  PATENT  ENGINE 

FOR  BE  ATI  KG  PAPER  PULP. 


TO  USB  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  KNEELAND'S  PATENT  LAYBOYS. 

STEVENSON'S  PATENT  DUPLEX  TURBINE  WATER  WHEELS,  &c. 


Our  long  experience  and  largely  increased  facilities  enable  us 
to  make  contracts  for  fitting  up  Paper  Mills  with  first-class  ma- 
chinery, embracing  all  the  latest  improvements,  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  and-  at  reasonable  prices. 


(413) 


GIRARD  TUBE  WORKS  &  IRON  COMPANY, 


Manufacture  Plain  and  Galvanized 


WROUGHT  IRON  FIFE, 

AND 

Saudries  for  Gas  and  Steam  Fitters,  Plumbers,  Machinists,  Eailing-makers,  Oil  Eefiners,  &c. 

WORKS,  TWENTY-THIRD  AND  FILBERT  STS. 
OFFICE  AND  WAREHOUSE,  No.  42  NORTH  FIFTH  STREET. 


And  Manufacturer  of 

Cylinder  Machines,  Calenders,  Wood  or  Iron 
Rag  Engines,  Bed  Plates,  Roll  Bars, 
Shafting  and  Gearing, 

Trimming  Presses,  Stamps,  Extension  Holders, 
Chilled  Iron  Rolls,  &c.,  &c. 

WATER  ST.,  LEE,  MASS. 


MANUFACTURER  OF 


Double  and  Single  Bill  Head,  and  Blue  Line 

RULING  MACHINES. 

ALSO, 

IIVIPROVED  STAMPING  PRESSES, 

For  Manufacturers  and  Finishers  of  Writing  Papers. 

44  Hampden  St.,  Springfield,  Mass. 


FISHER  &  HALL, 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


Cedar  Vats,  Tanks,  and  Reservoirs, 
Drainers,  Stuff  Chests,  Broken  Tuts, 
Straw  Kettles,  Boiling  Tubs,  Size  Tubs, 

FOB  PAPER  MILLS,  S^c. 


In  writing  for  estimates,  please  give  moasurements,  either  inside  or  outside,  thickness  of  stuff,  with  or  without 
hoops,  and  we  will  forward  proposals  by  return  mail. 

REFERENCES:  Messrs.  Chas.  Maoarge  &  Co.,  Philadelpliia;  W.W.  Harding,  Esq.,  Philadelphia;  E.  R.  Cope,  Esq., 
Philadelphia;  G.  S.  Garret  &  Bro.,  Philadelphia;  Parson  Paper  Co.,  Holyoke,  Mass.;  D.  H.  &  J.  C.  Newton, Holyoke, 
Mass;  Hudson  &.  Cheney  Co.,  Manchester,  Conn. 

We  are  prepared  to  furnish  WHITE  CEDAR  of  a  superior  quality,  from  12  feet  to  30  feet  in  length,  and  from 
1  inch  to  3  inches  and  upwards  in  thickness,  on  the  most  reasonable  terms. 

To  Vafand  Tank  Manufacturers  we  can  furnish  staves  of  any  given  length,  thickness,  and  taper. 

For  the  information  of  parties,  we  would  .state  that  White  Cedar  wiH  last  at  least  fifteen  years  longer  than 
any  other  wood.    All  orders  from  a  distance  promptly  filled. 

1143, 1145  &  1147  N.  Front  Street,  GiSlv ,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

(414) 


PUSEY,  JONES  &  CO., 


WILMINGTON,  DELAWARE, 

Suilders  of 

FOURDRINIER, 
AND  CYLINDER  PAPER  MACHINES, 
STEAM  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 


Are  prepared  to  furnish  every  article  of  Machinery  used  in  Paper  Mills;  the 
following  list  comprises  the  names  of  some  of  the  articles  made  and  sold  hy  us. 
To  those  desiring  to  purchase  we  will  give  full  information  regarding  character^ 
construction,  and  price. 


IRON  VATS,  with  Iron  Screen  Frames. 
CHILLED   IRON  KNOCKERS,   for  Screen 
Frames. 

SCREEN  PLATES,  Brass  or  Nickel  Plated. 
MIXING  BOXES.     STUFF  PUMPS. 
FORMING  CYLINDERS. 
BRASS  AND  COPPER  TUBE  ROLLS. 
BREAST  ROLLS.    COUCH  ROLLS. 
SUCTION  BOXES.    FAN  PUMPS. 
PATENT  WIRE  GUIDES.    FELT  GUIDES. 
WOOD,  IRON,  AND  BRASS-CASED  PRESS 

ROLLS. 
DRYING  CYLINDERS. 
CHILLED  IRON  CALENDER  ROLLS. 
UPRIGHT  AND  REVOLVING  REELS. 
PAPER  CUTTERS,  Stop,  and  Continuous  Feed. 


THRESHING  MACHINES,  for  Rags  or  Papers. 
RAG  CUTTERS.    ROPE  AND  STRAW  CUT- 
TERS. 

DUSTERS.    ROTARY  BOILERS. 
WASHING  AND  BEATING  ENGINES. 
STOP  WATERS.    BRASS  OUTLET  VALVES, 
ROLL  BARS  AND  BED  KNIVES. 
CYLINDER  WASHERS. 
EXPANDING  PULLEYS. 
SUPER  CALENDERS. 
SHAFTING.    PULLEYS.  HANGERS. 
STEAM  ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 
BRASS  CASTINGS.    IRON  CASTINGS. 
WROUGHT  AND  CAST  IRON  PIPE  AND 
FITTINGS. 


We  are  prepared  to  execute  orders  promptly.  Special  attention  given  to 
repairs.  Plans  and  specifications  for  Mills  and  Machinery  furnished  free  of 
charge.  A  valuable  Circular  and  List  of  Spur  and  Bevel  Wheel  Patterns,  will 
he  sent  hy  mail  to  any  applicant.  ' 


JOSHUA  L.  PUSEY. 


WM.  G.  GIBBONS. 


THOS.  H.  SAVERY. 

(415) 


Holyoke  Machine  Company, 

HOLTOKE,  MASS., 


MANUFACTURERS  OP 


©Till  f  IIBIIIS. 


ALSO,  THE 


ayton,  or  ^merican  ^urbine  ^Hater^^heel, 


[See  extract  from  Report  of  Emerson's  Test,  below.) 


OF  THE  MOST  IMPROVED  CONSTRUCTION. 


RAG  ENGINES, 
CALENDERS, 

LITTLEFIELD  POWER  PUMPS, 
BOILER  PUMPS, 


SIZE  PUMPS  WITH  BED  PIECE, 
HYDRAULIC  PRESSES,  100  to  1000  tons, 
RAG  DUSTERS, 
HOLYOKE  ELEVATORS. 


TOWERS'  rATENT  TRIMytlUfG  PRESSES,  WITH  DRAWING  KNIFE. 

RULING  MACHINES,  TRI3IMING  FORMS,  AND  HOLDERS. 

Pusey,  Jones  &  Co.'s  Patent  Expanding  Pulleys. 

MILL  GEAEING  AND  SHAFTING,  IN  ALL  ITS  BKANCHES. 

PLANS  FOR  WHEELS,  WHEEL  PITS,  FLUMES,  &c.,  FURNISHED  IF  DESIRED. 

IRON  CASTINGS,  INCLUDING  COLUMNS,  CAST  IRON  PIPE,  &c. 

STEAM  AND  WATER  PIPING  IN  ALL  ITS  BRANCHES. 


Extract  from  Jas.  Emerson's  Test  of  the  Dayton,  or  American  Turbine,  at  Holyoke,  November,  1872. 


Full  gate,   76  8-10  per  cent. 

Seven-eighths  gate,   79  6-10    "  " 

Three-quarter  gate,   80  4-10 

Five-eighths  gate,   77 

(416) 


11  II 
11  11 


One-half  gate,  71  9-10  per  cent. 

Three- eighths  gate,   63  9-10 

One-fourth  gate,   47  7-10 

Being  th^  highest  average  per  cent,  yet  obtained  by  him. 


11  11 

11  (1 


EST^BLISHEID  1848. 


1600  Hamilton  Street,  Philadelphia, 

IMCINEERS  AND  MACHINISTS, 


1.  All  sizes  are  made  to  standard 
gauges. 

2.  The  Double 
is  of  quick  and  very  easy  attach- 
ment and  detachment. 

3.  The  Double  Braced  Ball  and 
Socket  Ifaiif/ers  are  light  but  very 
strong,  and  readily  adjustable  in 
every  direction. 

4.  Long  Journal  Bearinr/s  held  so  as  to  always  insure  a  uniform  distribution  of  pressure  over 
the  entire  length  of  bearing. 

>■).  The  appropriate  distribution  of  metal  in  Pulley  Castings,  giving  the  greatest  strength 
with  the  least  quantity  of  materials. 

The  introduction  of  a  scale  of  fixed  prices  for  every  separate  article,  enables  the  consumer 
to  know  m  advance  the  emcl  sum  his  work  will  costi  thus  giving  a  great  advantage  over  the 
purchase  by  the  pound,  the  amount  of  which  is  generally  indefinite.  Purchasers  of  our 
Improved  Shafting  will  make  not  only  a  direct  saving  in  first  cost,  but  a  continual  one,  by 
the  acquisition  of  a  well-constructed  and  easy  running  svstem  for  the  transmission  of  power, 
very  neat  in  appearance,  and  as  light  as  is  consistent  with'tbe  reciuisite  strength  ;  our  ex  tended 
experience  having  enabled  us  to  establish  correct  proimrtious  without  any  undue  expendi- 
ture of  material. 


MANUFACTURERS 


OF 


IRON  AND  STEEL-WORKING  MACHINERY. 


Shafting  and  Kill  Gearing  a  Specialty. 


MANUFACTURERS  OF 


GiFFARD's  Injector 


FOM  FEEDING  BOILERS. 


The  Injector  is  an  apparatus  which  may  replace  most  advantageously  all 
the  means  hitherto  used  for  .supplying  water  to  Steam  Boilers,  whether  stationary, 
locomotive,  agricultural,  or  marine. 

Its  application  does  away  entirely  with  the  necessity  of  pumps  for  feeding  boil- 
ers, and  the  various  movements  for  working  them  in  all  classes  of  engines,  and,  in 
fact,  wherever  a  boiler  is  used  and  steam  produced.  It  is  an  adjunct  to  the  boiler, 
and  entirely  independent  of  the  engine,  and  is  put  in  operation  by  simply  opening 
connections  with  the  boiler. 

The  apparatus  is  connected  with  the  boiler  by  two  pipes,  one  leading  from  the 
steam  space,  and  the  other  connected  to  the  lowest  convenient  point  of  the  water 
space;  it  will  operate  with  steam  at  any  usual  pressure. 

The  size  of  the  apparatus  is  comparatively  small,  and  its  application  is  rendered 
easv  by  the  fact  that  it  can  be  placed  near  to,  or  at  a  convenient  distance  from,  the 
boiler,  and  at  any  reasonable  height  above  the  level  of  the  feed  water. 

Prices,  cuts,  and  specifications  will  be  sent  on  application. 


(  417 


i^nsm  Mtt't'  tm(0n  W#^k$ 

Corner  Sixteenth  and  Buttonwood  Streets,  Philadelphia. 


\f  A.ftfl  E  S      AM^)^)RE^  [Successor  to  Matthews  &  Moore,] 

CASTINGS  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTIOiT.  Engineer,  Machinist,  Pounder,  and  Boilermaker. 


WK  HAVE  LARCE  EXPERIENCE  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OK 


M\m  ai  Stationary,  Ciliier  anJ  Mnlar  ]\\mH  Boilers,  for  f  ooJ,  Straw,  etc. 

ROTART  RAO  BOILERS.  SHAFTINGS  AND  GEARINGS. 

STEAIH  BOILERS  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 


LOBDELL  CAR  WHEEL  COMPANY, 


WILMINGTON,  DELAWARE. 


The  OMest  anil  lost  Extensive  Mannfacturers  of  Cliilled  Car  Wheels  in  tliis  or  any  other  Country. 


^XjSO  livd:  ^ niT tj if ^ c t tj  12- e s  oif" 


FOR  PAPER  MACHINES, 
RUBBER,  BRASS,  COPPER,  AND  ROLLING  MILLS,  &c. 


The  vast  quantity  of  iron  used  daily  in  the  business  of  this  establishment,  permits  the  very  best  selection  for 
the  composition  of  Chilled  Rolls.  The  long  experience  of  Mr  Geo.  G.  Lobdell  in  makin";  chilled  castings,  and 
who  personally  directs  the  selection,  enables  them  to  make  Chilled  Rolls  unequalled  in  quality. 

GEO.  G.  LOBLELL,  Prest.      WM.  W.  LOBDELL,  Sec'y.      P.  IT.  BRENNAN,  Treas. 


DIRECTORY  OF  THE  PAPER  TRADE. 

Ttie  following:  are  the  chief  features  of  this  Work: 

1.  The  poHt-office  address  and  name  of  every  paper  mill.  2.  The  clas3  of  goods  made.  3.  The  daily  capacity.  4.  The  kind  and  width  of  machine. 
5.  The  number  of  engines  and  rolN.  and  size  of  each.  6.  The  kind  of  power.  7.  The  exact  location  of  each  mill.  8.  The  nearest  shipping  point.  9.  The 
full  name  of  officers  and  partners.  10.  A  list  of  paper  mills,  clas.sified  accordinj"  to  goods  made.  11  A  list  of  paper  mills  in  course  of  erection.  12.  A  list 
of  paper  mills  burnt  or  otherwise  de.stroyed  during  the  past  year.  13.  A  list  of  paper  pulp  mills  14.  The  addresses  of  all  dealers  and  importers  of  paper 
ana  paper  m:iterials.  1.^.  The  addresses  of  the  wholesale  stationers  and  publishers  in  the  leading  cities.  16.  Advertisements.  17.  A  separate  and  concise 
index  to  each  department,  including  advertisements. 

In  this  work  are  incorporated  the  following  valuable  statistics,  compiled  from  very  late  reports  from  all  the  mills,  and  constituting  the  only  reliable 
information  of  this  kind  ever  before  published :  1.  The  total  number  of  paper  mill.s  in  each  State,  including  straw  and  hinders'  boards  mills.  2  The  total 
value  of  all  the  mills  in  each  ^tate.  3  The  total  amount  invested  in  paper- making  in  each  8tnte.  4.  The  total  amount  of  paper  made  in  1872  5.  T.  e 
toial  value  of  paper  made  in  ea^h  and  all  States  during  1S72.  6.  The  total  numhei  of  hands  employed,  mule,  female,  and  children,  during  1872.  7.  The 
total  amount  of  each  grade  of  paper,  including  straw  and  binders'  boards,  made  during  the  year  1872. 

The  Directory  is  octavo  in  form,  printed  on  the  finest  book  paper,  and  handsomely  bound  in  cloth.  PRICE  $5«00« 


Address 


(418) 


HOWARD  LOCRWOOD,  Pfllsher  Paiier  Trade  Journal,  U  Part  Place,  N.  Y. 


SHAW'S  MERCURIAL  PRESSURE  GAUGES. 


FOR  MEASURING 


FAIKMOUNT  BUILDING, 


913  &  915  RIDGE  AVENUE, 

(Above  Vine  Street.) 

4®"  These  Gauges  are  based  solely  on  the  height  of  a  definite  column  of 
mercury,  in  an  open  glass  tube,  without  springs  or  other  mechanical  appliances, 
to  complete  the  measurement.  They  have  been  adopted  as  standards  in  the 
United  States  Courts,  and  are  in  use  in  the  Navy  and  on  the  principal  Railroads 
throughout  the  country. 

STEAM  GAUGES 


Straw,  Wood,  and  other  Digesting  Boilers, 
Rag  Boilers, 

Steam  Boilers  of  all  Descriptions, 

Hydraulic  Presses. 

The  steam  pressure  acts  upon  the  smaller  head,  /,  of  the  piston  C,  the  larger  upper  head 
€  of  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  mercury  chamber  a.  The  rubber  plate  b  covers  the 
joints,  and  permits,  through  its  elasticity,  amovement  up  or  down  of  the  piston  C.  The 
^lass  tube  fJ  is  tightly  pressed  into  the  gum  ring  h  by  screwing  on  the  top  cap  F,  and  thus 
joined  to  the  disk  B. 

The  top  of  the  column  of  mercury  G  is  open  to  the  atmosphere  and  indicates  the  pres- 
sure solely  by  its  height.  It  would— as  in  the  barometer— rise  from  28  to  30  inches  for 
every  atmosphere  of  pressure,  or  15  pounds  per  square  inch,  if  tlie  steam  were  allowed  to 
act  directly  upon  the  mercury  or  upon  the  larger  piston-heud  e.  But  the  pressure  is  only 
exercised  upon  the  smaller  piston-head  7,  and  thus  divided  upon  the  twenty-five  to  one 
hundred  times  (according  to  the  size  ot  the  gauge)  larger  surface  of  e.  and  rt^duced  in  the 
same  proportion.  The  column  of  mercury  will  tlierefore  be  likewise  reduced  to  from  one- 
twenty-fifth  to  one  one-hundredth  of  the  height  to  which  it  would  rise,  if  acted  upon 
directly,  and  it  is  thus  made  possible  to  apply  the  principle  of  the  barometer,  which  is 
the  only  safe  measure  of  pressures,  to  a  convenient  steam  gauge. 

Send  for  Circulars  and  prices  to 

THOMAS  SHAW, 

913  &  915  Eidge  Avenue,  ab.  Vine  St.,  Philadelphia,  Fa. 


PAPER  TRADE  REPORTER, 

No,  152  Worth  Stf^eet,  New  York. 


A  Trade  Journal  Conducted  in  the  Interest  of  Paper  Manufacturers,  Machinists,  and  Workingmen  in  Paper-Mills. 

Special  Prominence  given  to  Articles  by  Competent  Writers  upon  the  Science  and 

Art  of  Paper-making. 


By  BISSELL  &  DARROW. 


CHAMPION  BISSELL,  Editor. 


Subscription  price  $2.00  a  year.  To  workingmen  Sl.50  a  year.  Payable  in  advance.  The  most  widely  circulated  trade  journal  in  Amer- 
ica.   An  unequalled  advertising  medium  for  all  who  wish  to  reach  Paper-makers  and  Machinists. 

This  journal  will  enter  on  the  fifth  year  of  its  existence  in  July,  1873.  It  reaches  nearly  every  paper-mill  in  the  United  States  and 
Canadas,  besides  Machinists  and  Dealers  in  Paper-makers'  Materials.  In  addition  to  Price  Currents  and  Statistics  of  the  Trade,  it  contains 
copious  and  accurate,  scientific  and  practical  information  from  domestic  and  foreign  sources,  necessarily  of  great  value  to  Paper-makers. 

53  (  418  ) 


"Absolutely  the  Best  Protection  against  Fire." 


THE 


FIRE  EXTINGUISHER  AND  ENGINE. 

In  daily  use  by  tlie  Fire  Dppartments  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union.    The  Government  has  adopted  them. 
The  leading  Railways  use  them.    Send  for  "  Their  Record." 

F.    W.    FARWELL,  Secretary, 

407  Broadway,  IVew  York.  78  Market  Street,  Chicagro. 

SHERMAN  &  CO.'S  PRINTING  ESTABLISHMENT, 

Southwest  Corner  Seventh  and  Cherry  Streets,  Philadelphia. 


Extensive  Fire-proof  Vaults  for  the  Storage  of  Stereotype  Plates  and  other 

Valuable  Property, 

(420) 


THE  PAPER  TRADE  JOURNAL 


EST^BXjISHCEID  1872- 

THE  JOURNAL  is  the  organ  of  the  American  Paper  Trade  and  contains  the  latest  information  about  this  industry,  including  full 
descriptions  of  late  inventions  and  processes  for  manufacturing  paper  ;  accounts  of  new  fibres  and  other  materials;  a  record  of  the  opera- 
tions of  paper-mills  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canadas;  besides  comnninications,  both  of  a  practical  and  scientific  character,  by 
able  and  experienced  writers.  Lastly,  its  market  reviews  and  tables  of  quotations  show  at  a  glance  the  state  of  the  trade  in  New  York, 
Boston,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia,  and  New  Orleans,  and  are  as  accurate  and  complete  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them.  To  the 
European  manufacturer  or  dealer  who  wishes  to  be  informed  about  the  progress  of  the  paper  business  in  the  United  States,  the  .JOURNAL 
will  be  found  indispensable,  and  every  reader  will  be  able  to  gain  great  benefit  from  its  contents. 

Communications  on  matters  of  interest  to  the  Trade  are  earnestly  solicited  from  all  quarters,  and  if  used  will  be  liberally  paid  for. 

PUBLISHED  SEMI-MONTHLV.    $2.50  PER  YEAR. 

Terms  for  English  subscribers  are  12s.  6<f.  sterling,  including  postage.    Remittances  can  be  sent  by  post-office  order. 

HOWARD  LOCKWOOD,  Publisher,  14  Park  Place,  New  York. 


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American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant,  By  William  Carter  Hughks.  A  new  edition. 
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The  Practical  Millwright's  and  Engineer's  Ready  Reckoner :  or.  Tables  for  Finding  the  Diam- 
eter and  Power  of  Cogwheels;  Diameter,  Weight,  and  Power  of  Shafts ;  Diameter  and  Strength  of  Bolts,  etc.,  etc. 
By  Thomas  Dixon.    12mo,  cloth,  $1  50 

The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery  of  Transmission:  Comprising  the  Principles 
of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys,  Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engaging  and 
Disengaging  Gear.  By  William  Fairbairn,  Esq.,  C.E.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Prance,  and  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Turin,  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  etc.  Beau- 
tifully illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.    In  one  volume,  12mo,  $2  50 

Pocket-book  of  Useful  Formulae  and  Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 

By  Guilford  L.  Molesworth,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the 
Ceylon  Railway.  Second  American,  from  the  Tenth  London  Edition.  In  one  volume,  full  bound  in  pocket-book 
form,  $2  CO 

Practical  Sydraulics :  A  Series  of  Rules  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  Engineers,  etc.  By  Thomas  Box. 
12mo,  $2  50 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Seat:  as  applied  to  the  Useful  Arts.  For  the  Use  of  Engineers,  Architects, 
etc.    By  Thomas  Box,  author  of  "  Practical  Hydraulics."    Illustrated  by  14  plates  containing  114  figures.  12mo, 

$4  25 


'  The  above  or  any  of  my  Books,  sent  by  mail,  free  of  postage,  at  the  publication  prices. 
My  new  and  enlarged  Catalogue  or  Practical  and  Scientific  Books — 96  pages,  8vo — sent  free  to  any  one 
who  will  furnish  his  address. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD,  Industrial  Publisher,  406  Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia. 

(  421  ) 


PATENT  GROUND  CHILLED  ROLLS  FOR  PAPER  CALENDERS. 


J.  MORTON  POOLE  &  CO., 

WILMINGTON,  DELAWARE, 

Original  inventors  and  patentees  of  the  only  known  method  of  producing  a  perfect  cylindrical  form 
BY  GRINDING,  call  the  attention  of  Paper  Manufacturers  to  their  facilities  for  furnishing  Chilled  Rolls  ground 
by  their  patent  process. 

^  The  reputation  of  our  rolls  is  now  so  fully  established  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  anything  here  in 
their  recommendation.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  no  manufacturer  who  values  good  machinery  will  put  in 
anything  but  chilled  rolls  which  have  been  ground  by  our  machinery. 

Our  rolls  may  be  found  in  all  the  leading  mills  of  the  country,  and  will  themselves  bear  testimony  to 
the  accuracy  and  perfection  of  the  work  done  by  our  machines. 

We  append  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  many  parties  who  have  our  rolls  in  use,  and  who  can  speak  know- 
ingly of  their  merits : 


A.  C.  Denison  &  Co.,  Mechanic  Falls,  Me. 

Richards  &  Co.,  Gardiner,  Me. 

TiLBSToy  &  HOLLINGSWORTH,  Boston,  Mass. 

HOLLINGSWORTH  &  WHITNEY,         "  " 

S.  D.  Warren  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Campbell,  Hall  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 


Bemington  Paper  Co.,  Watertown,  N.  Y. 

Hudson  Kiver  Pulp  and  Paper  Co.,  Herkimer,  N.  Y. 

Rochester  Paper  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Niagara  Falls  Paper  Co.,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Jessup  &  Moore,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Martix  Nixon,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  WITH  MANY  OTHERS. 


For  further  particulars,  information,  &c.,  address  as  above. 
(422) 


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